《电子光学基础》PPT课件.ppt

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1、材料分析方法,第二篇材料电子显微分析,福州大学,材料科学与工程学院,李 强,FEI TecnaiG2F20,第二篇材料电子显微分析,第章电子光学基础第章透射电子显微镜第章电子衍射第章晶体薄膜衍衬成像分析第章高分辨透射电子显微术第章扫描电子显微镜第章电子探针显微分析第章其它显微分析方法,第章电子光学基础,1.1 电子波与电磁透镜,.1.1 光学显微镜的分辨率.1.电子波的波长特性.1.3 电磁透镜,1.2 电磁透镜的分辨率,1.2.1 球差1.2.2 像散1.2.3 色差1.2.4 电磁透镜的分辨率,1.3 电磁透镜的景深和焦长,1.3.1 景深1.3.2 焦长,A human eye can

2、distinguish two separate points in an object if they are not closer than 0.2 mm to each other.This is called the resolving power of the human eye.In order to increase this resolving power man has invented several tools,such as:The optical light microscopeThe light microscope probably developed from

3、the Galilean telescope during the 17th century.,第章电子光学基础,1.1 电子波与电磁透镜,.1.1 光学显微镜的分辨率,One of the earliest instruments for seeing very small objects was made by the Dutchman Antony van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723).Van Leeuwenhoek may well have been able to magnify objects up to 400 x and with it he discover

4、ed protozoa(原生物),and bacteria(细菌)and was able to classify red blood cells by shape.A modern light microscope has a magnification of about 1000 x and enables the eye to resolve objects separated by 0.0002 mm(0.2mm/0.2mm=1000 x),The optical microscope generally consists of four main items:,The light s

5、ourceThe condenserThe objective lensThe magnifying lens,The light source generates light in the visible or invisible light spectrum.The two most important factors of the light source are:,The wavelength.The brightness or light density,The brightness depends on the type of lamp used and its capabilit

6、y to emit light from a small point source.The wavelength is determined by the light colour and varies between 400nm(Ultraviolet)and 1000nm(Infrared).,Limiting factors,The brightnessThe wavelengthOptical properties of individual lenses can not be variedLack of analytical capabilities.,As the theoreti

7、cal resolving power is physically limited by the formula Wavelength(l)/2=200nm,the resolution of a light microscope is a maximum of 0.2mm/0.2mm=1000 x better than the human eye.,In an ideal positive lens a parallel incoming beam is focused in a point behind the lens.This point is called the back foc

8、al plane.If the beam is parallel to the optical axis,the focus point(F)will be on this axis,which is perpendicular to the lens.,OPTICAL THEORY,The ray path of a beam parallel to the optical axis will be deflected through the image focus point FThe ray path of a beam through the object focus point F

9、in front of the lens will be deflected parallel to the optical axis.The beam through the optical centre of the lens will be undeflected.,The construction of an image point by using three rays:,由于衍射效应的作用,点光源在像平面上得到的并不是一个点,而是一个中心最亮,周围带有明暗相间同心园环的园斑,即Airy斑,Airy斑的光强分布特征:84集中在中央亮斑上,其余由内向外顺次递减,分散在第1、第2。一般将

10、第一暗环半径定为Airy斑的半径。,点光源的成像-Airy斑的概念,点成像一次波和二次波的干涉花样两个物点的情况,光学透镜成像的情况-Rayleigh准则(Rayleigh criterion)表示样品上的两个物点S、S经过物镜在像平面形成像s1、s2的光路。即1、2成像后在像平面上会产生两个Airy斑1、2,(a)两个Airy斑明显可分辨出。,(b)两个Airy斑刚好可分辨出。,(c)两个Airy斑分辨不出。,I,0.81I,When two points are very near to each other,the resulting intensity spread shows a d

11、ip as shown in the figure below:,如果两个物点靠近,相应的两个Airy斑也逐渐重叠当斑中心间距等于Airy 斑半径时,强度峰谷值相差,人眼可以分辨,即Rayleigh准则,Rayleigh准则(Rayleigh criterion):,当一点光源衍射图样的中央最亮处刚好和另一个点的第一个最暗处重合时,两衍射斑中心强度约为中央的,人眼刚可以分辨,这一条件称为Rayleigh准则,此时的光点距离r0称为分辨率,可表达如下:,式中,-光的波长 n-折射系数-孔径半角 n sin-数值孔径(Numeric Aperture),上式表明,分辨率的最小距离与波长成正比。,对

12、玻璃透镜,取最大孔径半角=70-750,在物方介质为油的情况下,n 1.5,则其数值孔径n sin,上式可简化为,可见,半波长是光学玻璃透镜可分辨本领的理论极限。可见光的波长在390-760nm,其极限分辨率为200nm。于是,人们用很长时间寻找波长短,又能聚焦成像的光波。X射线和射线虽然波长短,但不能聚焦。,1924年De Broglie证明了快速粒子的辐射,并发现了一种高速运动的电子波,其波长为.005nm,比可见光绿光波长短万倍,由衍射效应确定的分辨率应为0.0025nm,但实际上为0.18nm1926年,Busch提出了用轴对称的电场和磁场对电子束进行聚集,发展成电磁透镜1931-19

13、33年,Ruska 等设计并制造了第一台电子显微镜经过50-60年的发展,目前,电镜的分辨率达到数量级,放大倍数达数百万倍,电子光学的发展:,In the 1920s it was discovered that accelerated electrons(parts of the atom)behave in vacuum just like light.They travel in straight lines and have a wavelength which is about 100 000 times smaller than that of light.(1924,De Bro

14、glie)Furthermore,it was found that electric and magnetic fields have the same effect on electrons as glass lenses and mirrors have on visible light.(1926,Busch)Dr Ernst Ruska at the University of Berlin combined these characteristics and built the first transmission electron microscope(often abbrevi

15、ated to TEM)in 1931.For this and subsequent work on the subject,he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1986.The first electron microscope used two magnetic lenses and three years later he added a third lens and demonstrated a resolution of 100 nm,twice as good as that of the light microscope.

16、Today,using five magnetic lenses in the imaging system,a resolving power of 0.1 nm at magnifications of over 1 million times can be achieved.,.1.电子波的波长特性,电子显微镜的照明光源是电子射线。与可见光相似,运动的电子也兼有波动性和微粒性,即所谓波、粒二象性。根据DeBroglie的观点,匀速直线运动着的电子必定和一个波动相对应,其波长取决于电子运动的速度和质量:,(11),式中 h=6.62610-34 J.S 为普朗克常数 m电子质量 V 电子速

17、度,如何获得电子?,一般,电镜的光源是一个能发射电子,并使其加速的静电装置称为电子枪(Electron gun)。加速电场的极间电压称为加速电压,是电镜的一个重要性能指标。,Electron gun,provides source of electrons to illuminate the specimen.There are two types of electron sources:thermionic sourcetungsten filamentslanthanum hexaboride(LaB6)crystals field-emission source(FEG)fine tun

18、gsten needles,Thermionic Emission,If any material to be heated to a high enough temperature,the electrons gains sufficient energy to overcome the natural barrier(work function)that prevents them from leaking out to escape from the source.Two thermionic sources used in practice are tungsten and LaB6.

19、,W filament,LaB6 crystal,Thermionic gun,A high voltage is placed between the filament(acting as a cathode)and the anode,modified by a potential on the Wehnelt which acts to focus the electrons into a crossover,with diameter d0 and convergence/divergence angle a0.,Field Emission,The principle behind

20、field emission is that the strength of an electric field E is considerable increased at sharp points,because if we have a voltage V applied to a(spherical)point of radius r then E=V/r.One of the easiest materials to produce with a fine tip is tungsten wire.To allow field emission,the surface should

21、be free of contaminants and oxide.This can be achieved by operating in UHV(better than 10-11 Torr),An FEG tip(fine W needle),Field Emission Gun(FEG),In order to get an FEG to work,we make it the cathode with respect to two anodes.A fine crossover is formed by two anodes acting as an electrostatic le

22、ns,Ideal electron source,high brightness(high current density)better coherency(small energy spread)small chromatic aberrationgood for modern TEM workgood stabilitylong lifetime,Characteristics of the three sources operating at 100kV,Comparison of electron sources,Tungsten sourcethe worst in most res

23、pects,but for routine TEM applications they are excellent,reliable sources and are cheap and easily replaceable.LaB6high brightness,improved coherency and the energy spread,increased operating lifeis a recommended thermionic source,for all aspects of TEM,but particularly AEM expensive(several hundre

24、d dollars each),Comparison of electron sources,FEGFor all applications that require a bright,coherent source the FEG is the best.(This is the case for AEM,HRTEM)For routine TEM,an FEG is far from ideal because the source size is so small.It is not possible to illuminate large areas of the specimen w

25、ithout losing current density,and therefore intensity on the screen.need UHV,very expensive(US$10,000),加速电子的动能与电场加速电压的关系为:,(12),即,式中 e=1.610-19C 为电子电荷;m=为电子质量,电子静止质量 m0=9.110-31kgV=为加速电压,由(11)和(12)可得,(13),若电子速度较低,则其质量和静止质量相近,即m m0,则,(14),若加速电压很高,使电子具有极高速度,则经过相对 论修正,有,(15),式中 C=3.0108 m/s 为光速,并有 ev=m

26、c2m0c2,(16),整理以上各式得,(17),不同加速电压下据(1-7)计算的电子波长,综上所述:,提高加速电压,缩短电子波长,提高电镜分辨率;加速电压越高,对试样的穿透能力越大,可放宽对样品 的减薄要求。如用更厚样品,更接近样品实际情况。电子波长与可见光相比,相差105量级。,.1.3 电磁透镜,可见光用玻璃透镜聚焦。电子束在旋转对称的静电场或磁场中可聚焦。电子束的聚焦装置是电子透镜。相应的分为:,磁透镜,静电透镜磁透镜,电磁透镜的聚焦原理,电荷在磁场中运动时,受到磁场的作用力,即洛仑磁力。透射电子显微镜中用磁场来使电子波聚焦成像的装置是电磁透镜。电磁透镜实质是一个通电的短线圈,它能造成

27、一种轴对称的不均匀分布磁场。,电磁透镜的聚焦原理:,对正电荷在磁场中运动时受到磁场的作用力为:,式中,q-运动正电荷 v-正电荷运动速度 B-正电荷所在位置磁感应强度,与磁场强度H的关系:B=H,F力的方向垂直于电荷运动速度和磁感应强度所决定的平面,按矢量叉积VB的右手法则来确定。,V/B,fe=0,电子在磁场中不受磁场力,运动速度大小和方向不变;VB,fe=fmax,电子在与磁场垂直的平面内作匀速圆周运动;V与B成角,电子在磁场内作螺旋运动;在轴对称的磁场中,电子在磁场内作螺旋近轴运动。,对电子而言,其带负电荷,F方向由BV决定,其运动方式有如下几种情形:,(a)磁力线上任一点的磁感应强度B

28、可分解为平行于透镜主轴的分量BZ和垂直于透镜主轴的分量Br;(b)电子所受的切向力Ft和径向力Fr;(c)电子作圆锥螺旋近轴运动;(d)电子束通过磁透镜的聚焦示意图;(e)光学玻璃凸透镜对平行于轴线入射的平行光的聚焦原理示意图。,2电磁透镜的结构,简单说,电磁透镜实质是一个通电的短线圈,它能造成一种轴对称的分布磁场。,实际上的电磁透镜要求磁场集中,在结构设计上必须考虑。,电磁透镜的发展经历了下面的过程,Examples of various lens types are found in the above figure,A Short multi layer air-core coil(us

29、ed by Busch as the first electron lens).B A soft-iron partly enclosed coil(lens type used by Jabor).C Soft iron circuit which totally encloses(used by Ruska and Knoll,1931).D Modern lens using pole pieces having a narrow bore and small gap.,A Short multi layer air-core coil(used by Busch as the firs

30、t electron lens).B A soft-iron partly enclosed coil;magnetic field is captured within weak iron,thus producing a stronger and more localised magnetic field B at the optical axis(lens type used by Jabor).C Soft iron circuit which totally encloses the coil except for small gap(used by Ruska and Knoll,

31、1931).D Modern lens in which B is further enhanced and concentrated at optical axis by using pole pieces having a narrow bore and small gap.,1)带有软磁铁壳的磁透镜,如图2所示,导线外围的磁力线都在铁壳中通过,由于在铁壳内侧开一环状狭缝,从而可以减小磁场的广延度,使大量磁力线集中在狭缝附近的狭小区域,增强磁场强度。其磁场的等磁位面的形状类似于光学透镜的形状。,磁,带有极靴的磁透镜,为了进一步缩小磁场的轴向宽度,在环状间隙两边加上一对顶端呈圆锥状的极靴,其

32、目的就是将电磁线圈的磁场在轴向的广延度降低,可达到3mm范围。其结构如图所示。,裸线圈、带铁壳和极靴后透镜磁感应强度分布见图(c),极靴由高导磁材料制成。,The distribution of the magnetic field B as a function of the optical axis Z is shown in the figure below.,3电磁透镜的光学性质,1)电磁透镜物距、像距和焦距三者间的关系与光学玻璃透镜相似,满足,2)电磁透镜的焦距可用下式近似计算,R透镜半径;A与透镜结构有关的比例常数;V0电子加速电压,u-物距;v-像距;f-焦距,放大倍数M,3)电

33、磁透镜具有磁转角,因为电子束在电子透镜磁场中的运动是圆锥螺旋近轴运动,1.2 电磁透镜的分辨率,已知光学衍射确定的分辩率为,(n=1.5,=70-750),但实际电镜的分辨率远远达不到上述指标,为什么呢?,这是因为电磁透镜存在着像差:,下面分别讨论球差、像散和色差产生的原因。,1.2.1 球差,球差即球面像差,是磁透镜中心区和边沿区对电子的折射能力不同引起的,其中离开透镜主轴较远的电子比主轴附近的电子折射程度更大。,如图所示,物点P通过透镜成像时,电子就不会聚焦在同一焦点上,而是形成一个散焦斑,即像平面在远轴电子的焦点和近轴电子的焦点之间移动,就可以得到一个最小的散焦园斑。,显然,物平面上两点

34、的距离2rs时,则该透镜不能分辨,即在像平面上得到一个点,因此,rs表示球差的大小。,CS球差系数,通常相当于焦距,1-3mm.-电磁透镜的孔径半角。,上式可以看出,减小球差可以通过减小CS 和来实现,用小孔径成像时,可使球差明显减小。,若设最小散焦斑的半径为RS,透镜的放大倍数为M,其折算到物平面上,其大小为,1.2.2 像散,像散是由于电磁透镜的周向磁场非旋转对称引起。,极靴内孔不园上下极靴不同轴极靴材质磁性不均匀极靴污染,原 因:,透镜磁场的这种非旋转性对称使它在不同方向上的聚焦能力出现差别,物点P通过透镜后不能在像平面上聚焦成一点,而是形成一散焦斑,如图所示。,A像散焦距差,透镜制造精

35、度差和极靴、光阑的污染都能导致像散。可以通过引入一强度和方位都可以调节的矫正磁场来进行补偿。在电镜中,这个产生矫正磁场的装置是消像散器。,与球差的处理情况相似,若设最小散焦斑的半径为RA,透镜的放大倍数为M,其折算到物平面上,其大小为,1.2.3 色差,色差是由入射电子的波长或能量的非单一性造成的。,若入射电子的能量出现一定的差别,能量大的电子在距透镜光心比较远的地方聚焦,而能量低的电子在距光心近的地方聚焦,由此产生焦距差。像平面在远焦点和近焦点间移动时存在一最小散焦斑RC。如图所示。,CC色差系数;E/E-电子束能量变化率,取决于加速电压的稳定性和电子穿过样品时发生非弹性散射的程度,稳定加速

36、电压和透镜电流可减小色差。,色差系数和球差系数均随透镜激磁电流的增大而减小。,把散焦斑的半径折算到原物面的半径rC有,1.2.4 电磁透镜的分辨率,电磁透镜的分辨率主要由衍射效应和像差来决定。,(1)已知衍射效应对分辨率的影响,很小通常10-210-3rad有,(2)像差对分辨的影响,球差:,(1),像散:,用消像散器,色差:,稳定电源,因此,像差决定的分辨率主要是由球差决定的。,显然,存在一个最佳孔径半角,令,即,代入(1)得电磁透镜的分辨率为,1.3 电磁透镜的景深和焦长,1.3.1 景深,任何样品都有一定厚度。理论上,当透镜焦距、像距一定时,只有一层样品平面与透镜的理想物平面相重合,能在

37、像平面上获得该层平面的理想图像。偏离理想物平面的物点都存在一定程度的失焦,从而在像平面上产生一个具有一定尺寸的失焦园斑。如果失焦园斑尺寸不超过由衍射效应和像差引起的散焦斑,那么对透镜分辨率不会产生影响。,定义:景深是,当像平面固定时(像距不变),能维持物像清晰的范围内,允许物平面(样品)沿透镜主轴移动的最大距离Df。,它与电磁透镜分辨率r0、孔径半角之间的关系,取 r0=1 nm,=10-210-3rad则 Df=200200nm,试样(薄膜)一般厚200300nm,上述景深范围可保证样品整个厚度范围内各个结构细节都清晰可见。,1.3.2 焦长,定义:固定样品的条件下(物距不变),象平面沿透镜

38、主轴移动时仍能保持物像清晰的距离范围,用DL表示,见图。,当透镜的焦距、物距一定时,像平面在一定的轴向距离内移动,也会引起失焦,产生失焦园斑。若失焦园斑尺寸不超过透镜衍射和像差引起的散焦斑大小,则对透镜的分辨率没有影响。,透镜焦长DL与分辨率r0、像点所张的孔径半角之间的关系,若分辨率r0,则,取 r0=1 nm,=10-2rad若 M=200,DL=8 mm若 M=20000,DL=80 cm,电磁透镜的这一特点给电子显微镜图象的照相记录带来了极大的方便,只要在荧光屏上图象聚焦清晰,在荧光屏上或下十几厘米放置照相底片,所拍得的图象也是清晰的。,电子波有何特征?与可见光有何异同?分析电磁透镜对电子波的聚焦原理,说明电磁透镜的结构对聚焦能力的影响。电磁透镜的像差是怎样产生的?如何来消除和减少像差?说明影响光学显微镜和电磁透镜分辨率的关键因素是什么?如何提高电磁透镜的分辨率?电磁透镜景深和焦长主要受哪些因素影响?说明电磁透镜的景深大、焦长长,是什么因素影响的结果?假设电磁透镜没有像差,也没有衍射埃利斑,即分辨率极高,此时它的景深和焦长如何?,习 题,

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