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1、Chapter1Invitationsto1.inguistics1.1 Whystudy1.anguage?1. 1.anguageisveryessentia1.tohumanbeings.2. In1.anguagetherearemanythingsweshou1.dknow.3. Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudy1.anguagescientifica1.1.y.1.2 Whatis1.anguage?1.3 Designfeaturesof1.anguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhunan1.anguagescan
2、beca1.1.eddesignfeatures吐ichcandistinguishhuman1.anguagefromanyanima1.systemofcomunication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Dua1.ity1.3 .3CreativityCreativitymeansthat1.anguageisresourcefu1.becauseofitsdua1.ityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotheru1.eIrt1.iChcanbeapp1.iedrepeated1.ywithoutanydefinit
3、e1.imit.Therecursivenatureof1.anguageprovidesatheoretica1.basisforthepossibi1.ityofcreatingend1.esssentences.1.3.4Disp1.acement1.4 Originof1.anguage1. Thebow-wowtheoryInprimitivetimespeop1.eimitatedthesoundsoftheanima1.ca1.1.sinthevi1.denvironmentthey1.ivedandspeechdeve1.opedfromthat.2. Theph-phtheo
4、ryInthehard1.ifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoyId1.iChgradua1.1.ydeve1.opedinto1.anguage.3. Theyo-he-hotheoryAsprimitivepeop1.eworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgradua1.1.ydeve1.opedintochantsandtheninto1.anguage.1.5Functionsof1.anguageAsispropos
5、edbyJacobson,1.anguagehassixfunctions:1. Referentia1.:toconveymessageandinformation;2. Poetic:toindu1.gein1.anguageforitsownsake;3. Emotive:toexpressattitudes,fee1.ingsandemotions;4. Conative:topersuadeandinf1.uenceothersthroughcoomandsandentreaties;5. Phatic:toestab1.ishcoununionwithothers;6. Meta1
6、.ingua1.:toc1.earupintentions,wordsandmeanings.WhatisContextua1.isD?wContextua1.isniwisbasedonthepresutionthatonecanderiveneaningfron,orreduceitto,observab1.econtext:the“situationa1.contextandthe1.inguisticcontext*.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticu1.arspatia1.-tempora1.situation,asthefo1.1.ovingfactors
7、arere1.atedtothesituationa1.context:(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;(3)variousexterna1.objectsandevents：(4)deicticfeatures.The“1.inguisticcontextwisanotheraspectofcontextua1.ism.Itconsiderstheprobabi1.ityofoneword,sco-occurrenceorco1.1.ocationwithanother,whichformsp
8、artofthemeaning,andani11ortantfactorinC(MmIUniCation.Ha1.1.iday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsof1.anguage.Itneansthat1.anguagehasthreemetafunctions:AccordingtoHuZhuang1.in,1.anguagehasat1.eastsevenfunctions:1.5.1Informative1.5.2Interpersona1.functionTheinterpersona1.functionmeanspeop1.ecanuse1.
9、anguagetoestab1.ishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.1.5.3PerformativeTheperformativefunctionof1.anguageisprimari1.ytochangethesocia1.statusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcrimina1.s,theb1.essingofchi1.dren,thenamingofashipata1.aunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.1.5.4Emotivefunct
10、ion1.5.5PhaticcouunionThephaticccmminionmeanspeop1.ea1.waysusesomesma1.1.,seeming1.ymeaning1.essexpressionssuchasGdmorning,Godb1.essyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacM11fortab1.ere1.ationshipbetweenpeop1.ewithoutanyfactua1.content.1.1.6 Recreationa1.functionTherecreationa1.functionmeanspeop1.euse1.anguag
11、eforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy,sbabb1.ingorachanter,schanting.1.1.7 Meta1.ingua1.functionThemeta1.ingua1.functionmeanspeop1.ecanuse1.anguagetota1.kaboutitse1.f.E.g.Icanusethewordbooktota1.kaboutabook,andIcana1.sousetheexpression“thewordbooktota1.kaboutthesignb-o-o-kitse1.f.1.6 Whatis1.inguisti
12、cs?1.inguisticsisthescientificstudyof1.anguage.Itstudiesnotjustone1.anguageofanyonecoamunity,buttheIangUageofa1.1.hunanbeings.1.7Mainbranchesof1.inguistics1.6.1 PhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itinc1.udesthreemainareas:articu1.atoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.1.6.2 Ph
13、ono1.ogyPhono1.ogystudiestheru1.esgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsy1.1.ab1.es.1.7 .3Morpho1.ogyMorpho1.ogystudiestheminima1.unitsofmeaningmorphemesandword-formationprocesses.1.7.4SyntaxSyntaxreferstotheru1.esgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtofor11sentencesi
14、na1.anguage,orsimp1.y,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.1.7 .5SemanticsSemanticsexanineshowmeaningisencodedina1.anguage.1.7.6PragnaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.1.8 Macro1.inguisticsI1.acro1.inguisticsisthestudyof1.anguageina1.1.aspects,distinctfromDicro1.inguistics,whichdea1.tso1.e1.yw
15、iththeforma1.aspectof1.anguagesystem.1.8.1 Psycho1.inguisticsPsycho1.inguisticsinvestigatestheinterre1.ationof1.anguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandin1.anguageacquisitionforexaiQ)1.e.1.8.2 Socio1.inguisticsSocio1.inguisticsisaternIrt1.iChcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsin1.anguagea
16、ndsociety,inc1.udingthe1.anguageandthesocia1.characteristicsofitsusers.1.8.3Anthropo1.ogica1.1.inguistics,Anthropo1.ogica1.1.inguisticsstudiesthere1.ationshipbetween1.anguageandcu1.tureinacoununity.1.8.4Computationa1.1.inguisticsCo11utationa1.1.inguisticsisaninterdiscip1.inaryfie1.dIrfIiChcentersaro
17、undtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehuman1.anguage.1.9Importantdistinctionsin1.inguistics1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythat1.inguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthe1.inguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtheru1.estowhichtheoenbersofaIanguage-CCHmunityactua1.1.yconfomanddoesnotseektoinoseupont
18、hemotherru1.es,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptive1.inguisticsaimsto1.aydownru1.esforthecorrectuseof1.anguageandsett1.ethedisputesoverusageonceandfora1.1.Forexao1.etDontsayX.isaprescriptivecommand;Peop1.edon,tsayX.wisadescriptivestatement.Thedistinction1.iesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribin
19、ghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,a1.1.themainEuropean1.anguageswerestudiedprescriptive1.y.However,modem1.inguisticsismost1.ydescriptivebecausethenatureof1.inguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(u
20、sua1.1.yatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure,sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofa1.anguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEng1.ishusedinShakespearejstimewou1.dbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEng1.ishhasundergonesincethenvou1.dbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodem1.inguistics,syn
21、chronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatun1.essthevariousstateofa1.anguagearesuccessfu1.1.ystudieditvou1.dbedifficu1.ttodescribethechangesthathavetakenp1.aceinitshistorica1.deve1.ofxnent.1.9.31.angue&paro1.eSaussuredistinguishedthe1.inguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheact
22、ua1.phenomenaordataof1.inguisticsas1.angueandparo1.e.1.angueisre1.ativestab1.eandsystematic,paro1.eissubjecttopersona1.andsituationa1.constraints;1.angueisnotspokenbyanindividua1.,ParO1.eisa1.waysanatura1.1.yoccurringevent.Whata1.inguistshou1.ddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawru1.esframassofconfusedfa
23、cts,i.e.todiscovertheregu1.aritiesgoverninga1.1.instancesofparo1.eandmakethemthesubjectof1.inguistics.1.9.4CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChoasky,a1.anguageusr,sunder1.yingknow1.edgeaboutthesystemofru1.esisca1.1.edthe1.inguisticconetence,andtheactua1.useofIangUageinconcretesituationsisca1.1.edpe
24、rformance.Co11etenceenab1.esaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammatica1.mistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker*Sconetenceisstab1.eIdIi1.ehisperformanceisofteninf1.uencedbypsycho1.ogica1.andsocia1.factors.Soaspeaker,Sperformancedoesnota1.waysmatchhissupposedcompeten
25、ce.Chooskybe1.ievesthat1.inguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperforsance.Choosky,scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexact1.ythesameas,thoughsimi1.arto,Saussure,S1.angue-paro1.edistinction.1.angueisasocia1.productandasetofconventionsofaCOf1.mnmity,di1.eco11tenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeac
26、hindividua1.Saussure1.ksat1.anguagemorefr(xnasocio1.ogica1.orSocio1.inguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethe1.atterdea1.swithhisissuespsycho1.ogica1.1.yorpsycho1.inguistica1.1.y.Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1 SpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itinc1.udesthreemainareas:1. Articu1
27、.atoryphonetics-thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2. Acousticphonetics-thestudyofthephysica1.propertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3. Auditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticu1.atoryphonetics.2.2 SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinv
28、o1.vedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.3 Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.1 SegmentsanddivergencesAstherearemoresoundsinEng1.ishthanits1.etters,each1.ettermustreprese
29、ntmorethanonesound.2.3.2 PhonetictranscriptionInternationa1.PhoneticA1.phabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbo1.sforrepresentingthepronunciationofvordsinany1.anguageaccordingtotheprincip1.esoftheInternationa1.PhoneticAssociation.Thesymbo1.sconsistsof1.ettersanddiacritics.Some1.ettersaretakenfromtheRomana1.phab
30、et,somearespecia1.symbo1.s.2.4. 2ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestab1.ishedonthebasisofsevera1.factors.Themostinortantofthesefactorsare:1. theactua1.re1.ationshipbetweenthearticu1.atorsandthusthewayinIdIiChtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevoca1.tract(mannerofarticu1.ation);2. 吐ereinthevoca
31、1.tractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(p1.aceofarticu1.ation).2.4. 3Mannersofarticu1.ation8.Ve1.ar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpa1.ate.2.4.5TheconsonantsofEng1.ishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEng1.ishpronunciationIdIiChhasbeenre
32、gardedastheprestigevarietyandichshowsnoregiona1.variation.Ithasoftenbeenpopu1.ar1.yreferredtoasBBCEng1.ishworOxfordEng1.ish*becauseitiswide1.yusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEng1.ishconsonantsMannerofarticu1.ationP1.aceofarticu1.ationBi1.ab
33、ia1.1.abiodenta1.Denta1.A1.veo1.arPosta1.veo1.cirPa1.ata1.Ve1.arG1.otta1.StopNasa1.FricativeApproxiiDant1.atera1.Affricate.Innanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesamep1.aceandmannerofarticu1.ation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingonthe1.eftisvoice1.essandtheoneontherig
34、htisvoiced.Therefore,theconsonantsofEng1.ishcanbedescribedinthefo1.1.owingway:pvoice1.essbi1.abia1.stopbvoicedbi1.abia1.stopsvoice1.essa1.veo1.arfricativezvoiceda1.veo1.arfricativembi1.abia1.nasa1.na1.veo1.arnasa1.1a1.veo1.ar1.atera1.jpa1.ata1.approximanthg1.otta1.fricativera1.veo1.arapproximant2.5
35、Vowe1.s2.5.1 Thecriteriaofvowe1.description1. Thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,center,orback.2. TheextenttoIrfIiChthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepa1.ate.Norna1.1.yythreeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-1.ow)and1.ow.3. Thekindofopeningmadeatthe1.ips-variousdegr
36、eesof1.iproundingorspreading.4. Thepositionofthesoftpa1.ate-.raisedforora1.vowe1.s,and1.oweredforvowe1.swhichhavebeennasa1.ized.2.5.2 Thetheoryofcardina1.vowe1.sIcywarmteadoesn,tquiteunderstandthistheory.Cardina1.vowe1.sareasetofvowe1.qua1.itiesarbitrari1.ydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendingtoprovi
37、deaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactua1.vowe1.sofexisting1.anguages.Byconvention,theeightprimarycardina1.vowe1.sarenumberedfrononetoeightasfo1.1.ows:CV1.,CV2,CV3,CV4,CV5,CV6,CV7,CV8.Asetofsecondarycardina1.vowe1.sisobtainedbyreversingthe1.ip-roundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.IasorryIcannotty
38、peoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmayconsu1.tthetextbookp.47.-icywar三tea2.5.3 Vowe1.g1.idesPure(monophthong)vowe1.s:vowe1.svhichareproducedwithoutanynoticeab1.echangeinvowe1.qua1.ity.Vowe1.g1.ides:Vowe1.swherethereisanaudib1.echangeofqua1.ity.Diphthong:Avowe1.whichisusua1.1.yconsideredasonedistinc
39、tivevowe1.ofaparticu1.ar1.anguagebutrea1.1.yinvo1.vestwovowe1.s,withonevowe1.g1.idingtotheother.2.5.4 Thevowe1.sofRPhighfronttenseunroundedvowe1.highback1.axroundedvowe1.centra1.1.axunroundedvowe1.1.owback1.axroundedvowe1.2.6 Coarticu1.ationandphonetictranscription2.6.1 Coarticu1.ationCoarticu1.atio
40、n:Thesimu1.taneousorover1.appingarticu1.ationoftwosuccessivephono1.ogica1.units.Anticipatorycoarticu1.ation:Ifthesoundbecomesmore1.ikethefo1.1.owingsound,asinthecaseof1.a,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticu1.ation.Perseverativecoarticu1.ation:Ifthesounddisp1.aystheinf1.uenceoftheprecedingsound,asintheca
41、seofmap,itisperseverativecoarticu1.ation.Nasa1.ization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowe1.sorconsonantsbecomenasa1.Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditiona1.toa1.etterorotherbasice1.ements.2.6.2 BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimp1.esetofsymbo1.sinourtranscriptionisca1.1.edabroadtranscription.Theuseofmor
42、especificsymbo1.stoshovmorephoneticdetai1.isreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateon1.ythesesoundscapab1.eofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagiven1.anguagei1.ethe1.atterwasmeanttosymbo1.izea1.1.thepossib1.espeechsounds,inc1.udingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.2.7 Phono1
43、.ogica1.ana1.ysisPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itinc1.udesthreemainareas:articu1.atoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phono1.ogystudiestheru1.esgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsy1.1.ab1.es.Thereisafairdegreeofover1.apinwh
44、atconcernsthetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.Phoneticsisthestudyofa1.1.possib1.espeechsoundswhi1.ephono1.ogystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofa1.anguagesystematica1.1.yusease1.ectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phono1.ogyisconcernedwiththe1.inguisticpatter
45、ningofsoundsinhuman1.anguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprincip1.esthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedin1.anguages,andtoexp1.ainthevariationsthatoccur.2.8 Phonemesanda1.1.ophones2.8.1 Minina1.pairsMinima1.pairsaretwowordsina1.anguageIdIiChdifferfr(M11eachotherbyon1.yonedistinctivesoundandvhi
46、cha1.sodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEng1.ishwordstieanddieareminiiaa1.pairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitia1.phonemestandd.Byidentifyingtheninima1.pairsofa1.anguage,apheno1.ogistcanfindoutVdIiChsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.2.8.2 Thephonemetheory2.8 .3A1.1.ophonesAphonemeisthesma1.1.est
47、1.inguisticunitofsoundthatcansigna1.adifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeisca1.1.editsa1.1.ophones.E.g.inEng1.ish,whenthephoneme/occursatthebeginningoftheword1.ikepeak/,itissaidwitha1.itt1.epuffofair,itisaspirated.Butwhen/occursintheword1.ikespeak/,itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itis
48、unaspiratedBoththeaspiratedinpeakandtheunaspirated=inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas/andnotas/;theyarebotha1.1.ophonesofthephoneme/.2.9 Phono1.ogica1.processes2.9.1 Assimi1.ationAssimi1.ation:AprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonSoDeora1.1.thecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimi1.ation:Ifafo1.1.owingsoundisinf1.uencingaprecedingsound,weca1.1.itregressiveassimi1.ation.Progressiveassimi1.ation:I
