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1、西方语言学流派Theories and Schools of Linguistics 龙湘明,外国语言学通识课程,湘南学院 外国语学院,1. 分支? 流派?,1.1 定义分支: 多指语言学研究的领域, 研究范围, 也有经典著作, 有影响的人物, 多用共时观点。流派：流派多指思潮, 有代表人物, 代表著作, 主要观点, 研究方法, 盛行时代,有其影 响, 往往有历史视角。 历史视角和共时视角 一起 可以画出一个十字, 像一个坐标。,1.2 分支,普通语言学语音学音系(位)学词汇学形态学句法学语义学语用学,应用语言学 社会语言学心理语言学地理语言学历史语言学计算机语言学神经语言学文化语言学等,A
2、brief history of modern linguistics,SaussurePrague schoolPhonology & Trubetzkoy, phonemeLondon schoolMalinowski Firth HallidayAmerican structuralismBoas, Sapir BloomfieldTG Grammar (Chomsky),Saussure believed that language is a System of Signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which he
3、called the signifier and the signified.Saussures ideas: on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of Langue and Parole and of Synchronic and Diachronic linguistics and paradigmatic/sytagmatic relation pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.,
4、Saussure: Father of modern linguistics,Saussure: Father of modern linguistics,A series of dichotomiesLangue vs. ParoleSyntagmatic vs. ParadigmaticSynchronic vs. DiachronicSignified vs. Signifier,Saussure (1),Langue vs. ParoleDefinition; Differences; Significance;Recent disputes,Saussure (2),Syntagma
5、tic vs. Paradigmatic (Associative) relationsDefinition; Differences; Significance,Saussure (3),Synchrony vs. DiachronyDefinitionDifferencesSignificanceRecent disputes,Saussure (4),Signifier vs. Signified (Signifiant vs. Signifi)Definition;Differences; Significance,Saussure (5),Arbitrariness as the p
6、rimary feature of languageRelative arbitrarinessDisputesarbitrariness and conventionalityarbitrariness vs. motivationmotivation and iconicity,索绪尔之后的西方现代语言学流派,索绪尔,20世纪20、30年代出现的三大结构主义,欧洲学派：语言的功能哥本哈根学派布拉格学派,美国结构主义：语言的形式萨丕尔、布龙菲尔,伦敦学派：语言出现的情境，社会学角度韩礼德系统功能语法,美国生成语法：心理学角度乔姆斯基,20世纪50-60年代,20世纪50-70年代 数理语言学
7、、计算机语言学等,13,Functionalism,Formalism,Two Traditions of Modern Linguistics,对流派的宏观分类,韩礼德:20世纪下半叶的基本对立阵营不是结构主义与生成语法。最根本的两大阵营是：形式派（形式语法）和功能派（功能语法）。,1. 现实意义,对外语教/学理念的影响,16,The functional perspective,The Prague School,The London School,2. 西方语言学主要流派,2.1 欧洲功能学派: 布拉格学派,哥本哈根学派 强调语言的交际功能和语言成分的区分功能，常被成为功能主义者（fon
8、ctionnalists），或功能语法学派。 语言是交际的工具，是思维的工具，在交际中，语言手段要完成一定的功能，执行一定的任务。 要研究实现各种功能的语体。 应从语言功能入手，再去研究语言的形式。 一开始就注意语义的研究，与结构主义根本不同 语体学：提出标准语言的划分原则教学上的“交际法”“功能”法,Prague School,General featuresSynchronic studySystemic view, on which PHONEME is basedFunctional view,19,Three important points:Stressed synchronic
9、linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analyzed or evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.L is functional in
10、 that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.,20,Major Contribution of the Prague School,Trubetzkoy - phonology 音位学Jakobson - phonology universal 音位的普遍现象Mathesius - theme & rheme 主位和述位Jan Firbas - Communicative Dynamism (CD) 交际力Halliday- Syste
11、mic Functional Grammar,Prague School (1),Trubetzkoy (1890-1938)Russian linguistPrague School of structurallinguisticsFounder of morphophonologyDefined the phoneme as the smallest distinctive unit within the structure of a language, separating phonology from phonetics,Prague School (2),Phoneme vs. Ph
12、oneDefinitionDifferencesSignificancePhonemes arelanguage-specificEmic vs. Etic,23,Prague School (3)Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) Mathesius （18821945）,A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure, called the theme, is the ground on which the speaker
13、 and the hearer meet.The goal of discourse, called the rheme, presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer.Movement from theme to rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself.,24,Theme the known information to the reader or hearer.Rheme information that is new to the reader or
14、 hearer.Transition between the theme and rheme, such as verb and its tense carrier.E.g. John has fallen ill. Theme transition rheme,25,Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe how information is distributed in sentences. It deals particularly with the effect of the distr
15、ibution of known (given) info and new info in discourse.New info: to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Sally stands on the table. Theme RhemeOn the table stands Sally. Theme Rheme,2.2 伦敦语言学派,儿童语言七种功能：工具的、 控制的、 交往的、 个人的、启发的、 想象的、 信息的 成人语言三种功能：概念功能、交际功能、语篇功能 语言的情境决 定语言的内容 。强调把形式与意义结合起来，既强调语言的形式，又
16、强调语言在社会生活中的运用规则，属于“语用学”。 “情境教学”，注重不同情境下的语言内容。,27,The London School,Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.All three stressed the importance of context of situat
17、ion and the system aspect of L.,London School: context & system,MalinowskiAnthropological perspectivesPhatic CommunionFirthContext of situationHallidayFuntional Systemic Grammar,London School (1): Malinowski,MalinowskiLanguage as actionMeaning derives from situational contextPhatic communion (as a t
18、ype of situation),London School (2): J.R. Firth,Meaning is multi-levelPhonemic, Lexical, Morphological, Sentential, contextualSituational context vs. linguistic contextProsodic phonologySuprasegmentals etc.,31,London School (3),M.A.K. HallidayStudies language performance (use)Systemic grammarchain &
19、 choicestransitivityFunctional grammarIdeational functionInterpersonal functionTextual function,4 basic assumptions:,1) Language use is functional.2) The function of language is to create meaning.3) These meanings are determined by the context in which they are exchanged.4) Language use is a semioti
20、c process that is based on choices.,London School (3),Systemic-Functional GrammarSociologically oriented; Wide influencesSystemic grammar: internal relations;Functional grammar: external, functional,35,aims to explain the internal relation in language as a system network, or meaning potential.,aims
21、to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.,Systemic Functional Grammar （系统功能语法）,London School (3),Systemic Grammar: hierarchical system structure, forming a complex system, providing all kinds of choices,37,Systemic Grammar,38,Systemic Grammar,The chain systemClauseGroupWordmorpheme,n
22、ew+born calv+es are eas+y prey,39,Systemic Grammar,The choice systemThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language.E.g.,London School (3),Functional GrammarLanguage structure results from social demand (functions).Language acquisition is a process of acquiring langua
23、ge functions and learning “how to mean”.Adult language functions are reduced to:Ideational, interpersonal, textual,London School (3),Ideational functionInformative, communicating new infoInterpersonal functionLanguage use expressing social and personal relations; modalityTextual functionMaking a tex
24、t coherent and unified,42,Three meta-functions (different modes of meaning construed by the grammar),a. The ideational function is to organize the speakers or writers experience of the real or imaginary world, i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons, things, actions, events, states, etc. 达意
25、功能：指组织说话者或作者现实世界或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。b.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It includes forms of address, speech function, modality, etc. 人际功能表明建立或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式、言语功能、情态等。,43,c. The textual function is to create writ
26、ten or spoken TEXTs which cohere within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. 语篇功能指组成书面或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所有的特定场景。,2. 西方语言学主要流派,2.3 美国结构主义 萨丕尔 ( Edward Sapir, 1884-1939 ), 布龙菲尔德（Leonard Bloomfield, 1887-1949） 萨皮尔： 语言是人类特有的， 非本能地利用任意 产生的符号体系来 表达思想感情 和愿望的方法。,Americ
27、an Structuralism,BoasSapir, WhorfBloomfieldPost-Bloomfieldian linguists,46,Structural grammar VS. Traditional grammar,Traditional grammar 1) It is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages. So inadequate for non Indo-European languages. 2) Its normative
28、 and prescriptive, and its rules are not all well-founded. (the declarative sentences),47,3) It applies a mixture of semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria without a fixed order, resulting in some cases of confusion in its analysis.4) It assumes a priori view of language without stating its
29、 methodological presuppositions.,48,Structural grammar,1) It is descriptive without explaining why language operates the way it does. 2) It is empirical, aiming at objectivity, but produces almost no complete grammars.3) It examines all languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of e
30、ach language. inadequate treatment of meaning,American Structuralism (1),Boasanthropologistparticularities, notuniversalslinguistic equalitylanguage is NOT relatedto culture or race“descriptive linguistics”: paved way for future American descriptive linguistics.,American Structuralism (2),SapirAnthr
31、opologist influenced by BoasLanguage is seen as pure human, non-instinctiveThought is seen as the product of language (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis),American Structuralism (3),Bloomfield (1887-1949)Behaviorism: stimulus-response reinforcement“Jack and Jill”Established American StructuralismInfluenced lang
32、uageteaching method:constant practice and repetition (drilling),American Structuralism (4),Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsStrict empiricismDiscovery Procedure (Z. Harris, 1950)Tagmemics (K. Pike)Stratificational Grammar Cognitive Stratificational Theory Neurocognitive Linguistics (S. Lamb),American S
33、tructuralism (5),Summary of structuralism:Descriptive, not explanatory;Empirical, but not very productive;Concentrates on particulars, paying little attention to meaning (universals);Doing exhaustive analysis of all contrasts,Chomskyan TG grammar,Etymological foundationInnateness Hypothesis, LADUniv
34、ersal grammarLevels of adequacy:DescriptiveExplanatory,Theoretical minimalism,Changes in theoretical frameworkClassic theory: late 1950sStandard Theory: 1960sExtended Standard TheoryRevised Extended Standard TheoryGovernment and Binding Theory (GB): 1980sMinimalist Program (MP): 1995,Features of Cho
35、mskyan TG,Rationalism (vs. empiricism)Empiricist evidence is often unreliableInnateness (vs. behaviorism)Children can acquire a complicated language on the basis of very limited exposure to speech.This indicates that some UG is innate faculty.,Features of Chomskyan TG,Deductive methodology (vs. indu
36、ctive)From hypotheses to dataComputation systemEmphasis on explanation (vs. description)Degrees of adequacy for linguistic theories: observational, descriptive, explanatory,Features of Chomskyan TG,FormalizationSymbols, rules, and computationsGenerativeFrom deep level (universal) to surface level,Fe
37、atures of Chomskyan TG,Emphasis on linguistic competenceObject of studyEmphasis on linguistic universalsStudying universals in order to reveal the essence of human (inherited) language faculty,TG Grammar has caused plenty ofcontroversy and dispute,Later theories,Case grammarFillmore, late 1960sGenerative semanticsRoss, McCawley, Lakoff, 1960s-1970sCognitive linguisticsLakoff, Johnson, Taylor, Fauconnier, 1970s-,Thats the end.,Thanks for your attention!,
