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1、中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Chapter 9,Language and literature,主讲人 王如利,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,9.1 Introduction9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language 9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form 9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.2.3 The Analysis of Literary Language9.3 The Language in Poet
2、ry 9.3.1 Sound Patterning 9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning 9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound 9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry?9.4 The Language in Fiction 9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view 9.4.2 Spe
3、ech and thought presentation 9.4.3 Prose style 9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction?9.5 The Language in Drama 9.5.1 How should we analyse drama? 9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language 9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts?9.6 The cognitive approach to literature 9.6.1 Theoretical background 9.6.2 A
4、n example of cognitive analysis,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 , Language and Literature What is language? Language is a set of commonly accepted signs and forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. What is literature? Literature is a term used to describe written texts which are marked by careful
5、 use of language (including creative metaphors, well-turned phrases, elegant syntax, rhyme, alliteration, meter etc.) in a literary genre (poetry, prose fiction, drama) What is the relationship between language and literature? (1) Literature is closely related to language. It reaches to human beings
6、 mostly via language. So we can say the existence of literature is based on the use of language. (2) Literary language has some special linguistic characteristics. Literature is marked by careful use of language, such as creative metaphors, well-turned phrases, elegant syntax, rhyme, alliteration, m
7、eter etc. The language used in literature is quite often different from language used in other fields, such as everyday use. (3) Literature has enriched language and is a pushing force in its change and development. Studying the language of literary texts can enhance our appreciation of the differen
8、t systems of language, because the literary texts often reveal the nature of the language in which they are written.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 , Style, Stylistics and Literary StylisticsStyle refers to variation in the language use of an individual, such as formal/informal style, oral/written style etc.Lit
9、erary style refers to ways of writing employed in literature and by individual writers; the way the mind of the author expresses itself in words.Stylistics a branch of linguistics that “studies the features of situationally distinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles
10、capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.” (Crystal 1980) the study of varieties of language whose properties position that language in context. For example, the language of advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, etc
11、., or the language of a period in time, all belong in a particular situation. In other words, they all have place. also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language. Other features of stylistics include t
12、he use of dialogue, including regional accents and peoples dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc.Literary Stylistics is the bridge that connects linguistics an
13、d literary criticism. It studies how the author expresses the theme and enhances the aesthetic effects of the text through his particular choices of language. To put it simply, it focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 , As a branch of linguistics,
14、stylistics also develops with and is influenced by the other schools and trends of linguistic study. The 1960s was a decade of formalism, the 1970s a decade of functionalism, the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, and the 1990s a decade in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic stu
15、dies are a main preoccupation. (Carter and Simpson, 1989) In addition to this, there is a trend of plural-heads development” (Shen, 2000), i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a case in point.,
16、中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,一、选择题“formal” and “informal” are features of . 对外经济贸易大学2005研A. slang B. lingua franca C. style D. jargon【答案】C二、填空题The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is called . It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 人大2006研【答案】styli
17、stics三、论述题What is the relationship between language and literature? 中山大学2006研【答案】(1) Literature is closely related to language. It reaches to human beings mostly via language. So we can say the existence of literature is based on the use of language.(2) Literary language has some special linguistic
18、characteristics. Literature is marked by careful use of language, such as creative metaphors, well-turned phrases, elegant syntax, rhyme, alliteration, meter etc. The language used in literature is quite often different from language used in other fields, such as everyday use.(3) Literature has enri
19、ched language and is a pushing force in its change and development. Studying the language of literary texts can enhance our appreciation of the different systems of language, because the literary texts often reveal the nature of the language in which they are written.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 , Foreground
20、ingWhat seems to distinguish literary from non-literary usage may be the extent to which the phonological, grammatical and semantic features of the language are salient, or foregrounded in some way. Originally coming from visual arts and in contrast with backgrounding, FOREGROUNDING is defined as “a
21、rtistically motivated deviation” (Leech an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientif
22、ic reports. Thus the term covers a wide area of meaning.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 , Devices of Foregrounding Outside literature, language tends to be automatized; its structures and meanings are used routinely. Within literature, however, this is opposed by devices which thwart the automatism with which l
23、anguage is read, processed, or understood. Generally, two such devices may be distinguished, deviation and parallelism.Deviation corresponds to the traditional idea of poetic license: the writer of literature is allowedin contrast to the everyday speakerto deviate from rules, maxims, or conventions.
24、 These may involve the language, as well as literary traditions or expectations set up by the text itself. The result is some degree of surprise in the reader, and his / her attention is thereby drawn to the form of the text itself (rather than to its content). Cases of neologism, live metaphor, or
25、ungrammatical sentences, as well as archaisms, paradox, and oxymoron (the traditional tropes) are clear examples of deviation.Devices of parallelism are characterized by repetitive structures: (part of) a verbal configuration is repeated (or contrasted), thereby being promoted into the foreground of
26、 the readers perception. Traditional handbooks of poetics and rhetoric have surveyed and described (under the category of figures of speech) a wide variety of such forms of parallelism, e.g., rhyme, assonance, alliteration, meter, semantic symmetry, or antistrophe. Levels of analysisSound effectsVoc
27、abulary Phraseology Grammar Implicature,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,9.2.1 Foregrounding and the grammatical formThe following examples both describe the inner city decay in U.S.A.The 1960 dream of high rise living soon turned into a nightmare. (Observer, 29 November 1995)Four storeys have no windows left to
28、 smash But in the fifth a chipped sill buttresses Mother and daughter the last mistresses Of that black block condemned to stand, not crash.The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left innumerable other lights o passing love in towns and cities an
29、d theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave. (Angela Carter, Wise Children),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,9.2.2 Literal language and figurative languageFriends, Romans and Countrymen, lend me your ears(Anthony in Shakespeares Julius Caesar)Simile is a way of comparing on
30、e thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like.O, my luve is like a red, red rose, Thats newly sprung in June; O, my luve is like the melodie Thats sweetly playd in tune.
31、(Robert Burns)Metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, i.e., the words like or as do not appear.All the worlds a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their e
32、ntrances. And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages (William Shakespeare),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Metonymy refers to the substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant, for example the turf for horse racing.There is no armour against fate; Death
33、 lays his icy hand on kings; Sceptre and Crown Must tumble down And in the dust be equal made With the poor crooked Scythe and Spade. (James Shirley) Synecdoche refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa. It is usually classed as a type of metonymy.Th
34、ey were short of hands at harvest time. (part for whole)Have you any coppers/nickels? (material for thing made)He is the Newton of this century. (individual for class),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,9.2.3 The analysis of literary languageWe can approach literary texts in various ways. Depending on the kind of
35、text we are dealing with and the aim of analysis, some of the following procedures may be of help in analysing the grammatical structure and meaning of the text.Foregrounding on the level of lexisuse morphological analysis to look at new combination of wordsForegrounding on the level of word order a
36、nd syntaxuse knowledge of word classes to analyze unusual or “marked” combinationsForegrounding on the grammatical levelanalyze the structure of sentences or look for combinations and patterns in the use of different types of word groups, nominal and verbal groups which may contribute to a more lite
37、rary usage of language. In all cases, you should find that being aware of the systems of the language, make it possible for you to identify the more deviant, marked or literary structures, from more everyday, non-literary usage of language, and thus be able to say more about the structural patternin
38、g in a text.Rewriting for comparative studiesStructural aspects of meaningThe significance of the ContextFigurative language,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,一、术语解释Foregrounding西安外国语学院2006研；北京交通大学2007研【答案】Originally coming from visual arts and in contrast with backgrounding, FOREGROUNDING is defined as “artistic
39、ally motivated deviation”. It refers to the uncommon usage at all levels of language including vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology, etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rules of usage by over-frequency.二、简答题What are the differences between simile and metap
40、hor? 南开大学2004研【答案】Simile is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing ,and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. For example, the phrase as cold as ice is a common simile.Although metapho
41、r also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, this comparison is implied rather than stated. That is, it differs from simile in that the words such as like or as do not appear. For example, “All the worlds a stage” is a metaphor.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,三、论述题What is the main difference between
42、literal language and figurative language? 中山大学2008研【答案】The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually its Literal meaning. Literal language uses the words usual or most basic sense without metaphor or exaggeration. On the contrary, figurative language is not intended to b
43、e interpreted in a literal sense. Appealing to the imagination, figurative language provides new ways of looking at the world. It always makes use of a comparison between different things. Figurative language compares two things that are different in enough ways so that their similarities, when poin
44、ted out, are interesting, unique and/or surprising. Figurative language uses “figures of speech” to express something other than the literal meaning of the words, in other words, figurative language cannot be taken literally (or should not be taken literally only). Simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecd
45、oche, personification, are all forms of figurative language. For example, the literal meaning of the word “tree” is “a large plant”. However, once we start talking about a tree in the context of “a family tree” for example, it is no longer a literal tree we are talking about, but a figurative one. T
46、he literal use of the word “tree” refers to an organism which has bark, branches and leaves. A “family tree” shares some of these qualities graphically, a plan of a family and a representation of a tree can look similar, and in a way they are both a process of organic growth, so we use the same term
47、 for both. But when we use the term for a plant it is a literal usage and when we use the term to describe our ancestry, it is a figurative usage.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,三、选择题1. is a figurative use of language which implies a comparison between two unlike elements. 西安外国语学院2006研，考试科目：专业英语语言学 a. Simile b
48、. Metaphor c. Metonymy d. Synecdoche【答案】b四、填空题“The world is like a stage” is an example of , and “All the world is a stage” is an example of . They are often used in analyzing features of literary language. 人大2006研 【答案】simile；metaphor五、判断正误Metonymy is a kind of figurative language which is usually c
49、lassed as a type of synecdoche. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa, as the use of “hands” in “We are short of hands”.大连外国语学院2008研 【答案】F【解析】Synecdoche is a kind of figurative language which is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers
50、 to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa, as the use of “hands” in “We are short of hands”.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,9.3.1 Sound Patterning In Nursery RhymesLittle Bo-peepHas lost her sheepAnd doesnt know where to find themLeave them aloneAnd they will come ho
