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1、中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Lexicon,主讲人 钱 军,Chapter 3,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.1 What is word?3.1.1 Three senses of “word”3.1.2 Identification of words3.1.3 Classification of words3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology3.2.2 Types of morphemes3.2.3 Inflection and word formation3.2.4 Sememe vs. m
2、orpheme, and phoneme vs. morpheme3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper3.3.2 Morpho-syntactical change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is exp
3、ressed in spoken or written form. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.3.1.1 Three senses of “word” (1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks,
4、 e.g. Phonological: /It is 5wQndEful/ Orthographic: It is wonderful. Three words are recognized. However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes: Phonological: /Its 5wQndEful / Orthographic: Its wonderful. Are they two words or three?,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(2) Word both as a general term and as
5、 a specific term When one is faced with a set of nouns, such as boy and boys or a set of verbs, such as check, checks, checked, and checking, they are recognized as two words and four words respectively. e.g. Word 1 “write” Word 1: write Word 2: writes Word 3: wrote Word 4: writing Word 5: written W
6、ord 2 “fat” fat fatter fattest So WORD may be used both as a general term (then fat, fatter, and fattest are just one word) and as specific items (then fat, fatter, and fattest are three words).,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(3) A grammatical unit: clause complex clause phrase/word group word morphemeThe Word
7、 rank is located between Morpheme and Phrase. A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, just like morpheme or clause complex.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.1.2 Identification of wordsStability: stable linguistic units. chairman, but not *manchairRelative uninterruptibility: though we recognize thre
8、e components in the word disappointment: dis(#)appoint(#)ment, we cannot pause or add another component in between, as in *dis interest appoint ment.But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary .A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by it
9、self. e.g.Is Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.1.3 Classification of words(1) Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. e.g. follow mat follows mats following follo
10、wedInvariable words: They do not have inflective endings, such as since, when, seldom, through, etc.(2) Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical/Function words: those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions,
11、 prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. (3) Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, co
12、njunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words: New members can be added, e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(4) Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.S
13、ome new terms in word class:i. Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.ii Auxiliary: do, haveiii. Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonePro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.Pro-verb: He speaks Engli
14、sh better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: He went there.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,iv. Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a f
15、ixed order when there is more than one.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three times ; such, what (exclamative), etc.Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; my, our, your, his, her, its, their; which, what (relative), what (i
16、nterrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, every; enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little), etc.Postdeterminers: next, last, past, additional; many, several, few, little; one, two, three ; (a) dozen), etc.When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they fo
17、llow the order of pre-determiners + central determiners + post-determiners.（*five the all boy,all the five boys） *their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,一、术语解释1. open-class words 浙江大学2007；武汉大学2007研【答案】Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in
18、 principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas, inventions, and so on; new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. For example, nouns, verbs, and adjectives all belong to this class.2. determiners 中山大学2005研 【答案】Determiner is a word which is used w
19、ith a noun, and which limits the meaning of the noun in some way. For example, in English, the determiner can be realized by a, this, her, some, etc.3. lexical word 武汉大学2005研, 浙江大学2005研【答案】Lexical word. lexical words are also called content words, referring to those which have lexical meanings，that
20、is，those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,二、选择题1. Words like pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles are items. 北京第二外国语学院2003研 A. open-class B. closed-class C. neither open-class nor closed-class【答案】B2. In terms o
21、f the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into . 大连外国语学院2008研 A. grammatical words and lexical words B. content words and lexical words C. grammatical words and function words【答案】A,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,三、填空题1. As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammati
22、cal ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones . 中山大学2008研【答案】function words2. In traditional grammar, is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item. 中山大学2006研【答案】pronoun3. In terms of the meani
23、ng expressed by words, they can be classified into words and words. 南 开大学2007研【答案】lexical, grammatical,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,四、判断正误1. Words are the most stable of all linguistic units in respect of their internal structure. 大连外国语学院2008研【答案】T2. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are all
24、open class items. 清华大学2001研【答案】F3. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are content words. 北京第二外国语学院2008研【答案】T,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller compo
25、nentsmorphemes.Morphemes: The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it islexical or grammatical.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.2.2 Types of mor
26、phemes(1) Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.(2) Root, affix and stem 1) Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without t
27、otal loss of identity, e.g. friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, e.g. black+board; nation+-al; or bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive. both free and bound: sleep(/sli:p/)and child(/tFaild/) are free roo
28、t morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept, and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,2) Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided
29、 into prefix (dis-, un-) suffix (-en, -ify) 3) Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, e.g. friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection: grammatical endings, such as plural, ten
30、se, comparative, genitive, etc. e.g. drums, walks, taller, Marys. Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. suburban, depart, online; slaver, teacher, workable.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.2.3 Inflection and Word Formation Inflection INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations
31、 by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, initeness, aspect and case; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the tems (to which they are attached ) will not change. For instance, Nominal forms: boys, boys Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting Adjective/adverb f
32、orms: smaller, smallest(2) Word formationi. Compound Two or more free roots combine to make a new word. Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree Preposition compounds: into, throughout,
33、中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Endocentric e.g. self-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair (2) Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyg
34、uard Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length Open: coffee table, washing machine Free variation: 1) businessman, business-man, business man 2) winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle3) no one, no-one, noone,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,ii DerivationDifferent from compounds, DERIVATION shows the relation between r
35、oots and affixes. e.g. un + conscious unconscious nation + al national national + ize nationalize nationalize + ation nattonalizationIn contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. (a) Class-changing:NV: lengthen, hospitalize, disca
36、rdNA: friendly, delightful, speechlessVN: worker, employee, inhabitantVA: acceptable, adorableAN: rapidness, rapidityAV: deafen, sweetenAdjAdv: exactly, quickly(b) Class-preserving:NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletVV: disobey, unfastenAA: grayish, irrelevant,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3.2.4 Sememe vs. Morphe
37、me, and Phoneme vs. Morpheme(1) Sememe vs. morpheme SEMEME: the smallest component of meaning. For example, the morpheme s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one. The relationship between sememe and morpheme: i. One morpheme vs. one sememe E.g. the morpheme less has just one sememe WI
38、THOUT, as in fearless, careless, ceaseless, countless, doubtless, shameless, faceless, speechless. ii. One morpheme vs. more than one sememe E.g. The morpheme a- has three sememes, in arise and await,a functions to enhance the meaning of the original senses rise and wait; in awash and ablush, a- cha
39、nges both the semantic and the grammatical categories of wash and blush; in atypical and asymmetry, a- means no or non.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,iii. One sememe vs. more than one morpheme E.g. morphemes that indicate the sememe of no or non: e- in erostrate (of a kind of animal with no mouth), il in illi
40、cit, ne in neither, un in untidy. iv. Morphemes that have no specific sememe E.g. en-, have no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. e.g. enjoy differs from joy both in the sememe of quality vs. event and in the form of adjective vs. verb. v. Function changes in b
41、oth sememe and morpheme without morpheme change the grammatical and the semantic categories change only according to the context it occurs. E.g. run in run a company, its grammatical and semantic categories are verb and event; a short run, it is a noun and thing. This process of which involves no mo
42、rpheme addition or variation, but the sememe of the morpheme is changed.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(2) Morpheme vs. phonemeMORPHOPHONOLOGY (MORPHONOLOGY) or MORPHOPHONEMICS (MORPHONEMICS): a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the mo
43、rpheme forms, and, correspondingly, the morphological factors that affect the phoneme form. So, it studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. i. A single phoneme vs. a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. Consider the foll
44、owing examples, E.g. (a) boys /bCiz/ (b) boys /bCiz/ (c) raise /reiz/ In (a), the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in (b), it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. However, in(c), it means nothing at all.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,ii. A single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme Mor
45、phemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme. E.g. Monophonemic dogs /dCz / Monosyllabic love + ly /lQv+li/ Polysyllabic tobacco /tE+5bA+kEu / Thus, the syllabic (phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic (morphological) structure do not necessarily
46、 correspond. E.g. tell十er /5tel+5E/ big(g) + er /5bi+E/,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,iii. Allomorph The morpheme that expresses plurality in English: map maps /mAps/ dog dogs /dCz/ watch watches /wCtFiz/ mouse mice / mais/ ox oxen /5Cksn/ tooth teeth /ti:W/ sheep sheep /Fi:p/ Plural sememe in English can be
47、represented by the voiceless /s/ , the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /iz/, the diphthong /ai/ found in the regular form of /mais/, the nasal sound /n/ in /5Cksn/, the long vowel / i:/ in /ti:W/ and the zero form / i:/ of /Fi:p/ and others. Each would be said to be an ALLOMORPH of the plu
48、ral morpheme.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,iv. Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary according to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own. (a) Phonologically conditioned The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors. 1) Assimilation: E.g. injustice impe
49、rfect inefficient impenetrable infirm impossible The negative morpheme is realized as in- or im- in the two sets respectively. Because the change of /n/ (an alveolar nasal) to /m/ (a bilabial nasal) due to /p/ after it. Therefore, the ASSIMILATION of /n/ is said to be conditioned by /p/. 2) Dissimil
50、ation: the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. E.g. grammar(O .E. ) glamor(M. E.) peregrinus(Latin) pilgrim marbre(French) marble,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(b) Morphologically conditioned Three requirements: all the allomorph
