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1、Macrolinguistics,宋丹丹林亚丽孔鲁晓罗曼张玲玉,Linguistics and anthropology语言学和人类学,Provided by 宋丹丹,1. Interdisciplinary links between anthropology and linguistics,1.1 Language is one of the research object of anthropology1.2 Language is one of the research tools of anthropology1.3 culture, as a anthropological con
2、cept, provide a more comprehensive description of language,1.1 Language is one of the research object of anthropology,Anthropology: anthropology is recognized social science with two broad fields, physical anthropology and cultural anthropology.Cultural: This term is taken from the technical vocabul
3、ary of anthropology, where in it embraces the entire way of life (obviously, language is a part there) of members of a community in so far as it is conditioned by that membership.So, language is included in the anthropology, which attempts to be all inclusive the study of human behavior in all place
4、s and throughout time, is one of the research object of anthropology.,1.2 Language is one of the research tools of anthropology,1.2.1 Each speech community lives in a somewhat different world from that of others, and that these differences are both realized in parts of their languages.1.2.2 It is cl
5、early possible to arrive at some description of a peoples culture without learning anything of their language, but one may surmise that a description of a culture that had involved some acquaintance with the language or languages of that culture will be in certain important respects more penetrating
6、 and revealing.,1.3 Culture, as a anthropological concept, provide a more comprehensive description of language,A description of a language by someone who has made use of some knowledge of the rest of the culture of its speakers will provide a more comprehensive account of the working of the languag
7、e within the community as a symbolic communicative system. For example, if the linguist wishes to deal at all in detail with semantics within his description, recourse to some cultural knowledge of the community may be a prerequisite if his statements of meaning, in important spheres of the vocabula
8、ry, are to rise above the superficially obvious and not to be confined to listing the nearest one-word translation renderings.,2. Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics is a cross subject of anthropology and linguistics, which work among such languages, where there is a total absenc
9、e of written records, and an almost total absence of prior scholarship. 人类语言学用人类学的观点研究语言学，是人类学和语言学的交叉学科，重点研究那些毫无文字记载的，几乎没有早期学术研究的语言。,Relative to sociology, which is mainly focused on the social groups of European and Europeanized communities, and concerned with their formation and interaction, anthr
10、opologists tend to concentrate on cultures remote from those of familiar European industrialized communities, with particular references to the form and organization of different cultures.It is in dealing with distant and primitive cultures, and with largely unknown and hitherto unstudied languages
11、that the anthropologist and linguist can come closest together. Where workers are inevitably few, and the languages and peoples are many, our knowledge may depend on the reports and analyses of one or, at least, of a small number of scholars.,3. Schools and representatives,美国学派以Boas，Sapir，Whorf为代表，他
12、们都研究过美洲印第安语。 Boas等人着重研究语言和人种学的关系，语言思维和文化的关系。Boas认为印欧语的语法范畴并不是普遍的。其思想经过Sapir和Whorf的发展，成为语言相对论，影响巨大也引起许多争论。,英国学派以Malinowsky为代表，后继者包括Block（研究传统社会中的政治语言和演讲术）Malinowsky研究西太平洋特罗布里安群岛土著语言、风俗习惯，论证了语义是由情景决定的，从社会的观点研究人类语言是这派研究的重点。,法国学派以C.L vi-Strauss（斯特劳斯）为代表，他对神话故事文本作结构分析，影响颇大。法国学术界从梅耶开始就注重语言的社会性研究，他说“语言全然是人
13、类行为，是纯粹的社会现象因为没有语言社会的存在是难以想象的，没有人的社会就没有语言社会条件决定语言”。这种观点具有国际性的影响。,Sociolinguistics 社会语言学,Provided by 林亚丽,1. Definition,We can define sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to society. (Hudson )Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in ex
14、plaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. (Holmes )Sociolinguistics or micro-sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between lan
15、guage and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication. (Wardhaugh ) Like other subjects, sociolinguistics is partly empirical and partly theoretical- partly a matter of going out and amassing bodies of fact and partly
16、 of sitting back and thinking.,Broad/narrow conceptions of sociolinguistics,Broad: Macrolinguistics-social emphasis (sociology of language) -Social functions of language (national identity, power and solidarity) -Political policy (urbanization, minority group issues, education, language policies) -L
17、anguage use in the constitution of individual identity (Dialect show where a person comes and register reveals what he does.) -How conversational patterns signify community membership,Narrow: microlinguistics-language emphasis: variation at some level of the grammar (sociolinguistics) Eg, dialect, s
18、tyle, register.,2. Development of Sociolinguistics,In 1935, an English linguist J. R. Firth initiated the concept “Sociological linguistics”, which is almost the equivalent of present branch of sociolinguistics “Sociology of language”. In 1949, an American linguist Mario Pei (马里奥裴 ) published a book
19、 “The Story of Language”, in which he mainly discussed about the social factors that might influence language. (These factors include family, religion, economy, politics, science, literature, education, even the way people eat and live. ),In 1952, American linguist Haver C. Currie (哈佛丘里 ) raised the
20、 concept of sociolinguistics formally.Only in the mid 1960s did this newly established science begin to be developed into an independent scientific area. The leading figures are William Labov(威廉拉波夫) and Dell Hymes(戴尔海姆斯), both American linguists. William Labov is known for his quantitative study of
21、dialects, while Hymes established “the ethnography of speaking”, and these have turned to be typical of sociolinguistic study.,Focus in late 1970s/1980s reflects contemporary social issuesStudies of Black English (Ebonics, and other names)emphasize linguistic integrity of nonstandard formslink betwe
22、en language and identitysimilarities across regions, plus certain features suggest it may be a creole rather than a (number of) dialect(s)Language and genderHow language reveals, embodies and sustains attitudes to gender. How language users speak or write in (different and distinctive) ways that ref
23、lect their sex Latterly, including gay and lesbian issuesLanguage and politicsAll of the above, plus: How language reveals, embodies and sustains attitudes to political positions (eg marxist, colonialist, ),3. The scope of enquiry,Fairclough calls it as transdisciplinarySociolinguistics and language
24、 teachingSociolinguistics and translationSociolinguistics and discourse analysisSociolinguistics and pragmaticsSociolinguistics and literatureCognitive Sociolinguistics,4. The methods of enquiry,Quantitative and qualitative methodsDetailed techniques: recording: collecting data. sociolinguistic inte
25、rview: techique of a recoded conversation intended to collect speech samples. questionnaire: a prepared list of questions to which strangers are asked to respond.,5. The leading figures,William Labov (born December 4, 1927) is an American linguist, widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of
26、 variationist sociolinguistics. He has been described as “an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology” of sociolinguistics. William Labov is known for his quantitative study of dialects(对方言的定量研究).,Dell Hymes established “the ethnography of speaking”(交谈民族志),
27、and these have turned to be typical of sociolinguistic study.从语言和文化、社会之间的相互关系研究语言使用的规律。侧重于文化人类学的观念来描述语言的运用，尤其注重研究在不同的社团、组织、社区以及社会中因文化习俗的不同给语言运用所带来的限制特征。,Psycholinguistics心理语言学,Provided by 孔鲁晓,1. Definition,Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary(跨学科的) field that draws on psychology and related dis
28、ciplines to study language processes. It is about how people use language or the mental processes a person uses in producing and understanding language(关于人们如何使用语言或是在产生和理解语言时的心理过程。).,2. Areas of study：,Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answeri
29、ng the following questions: (1) language acquisition; (2) language production; (3) language comprehension.,2.1 Language Acquisition,Language Acquisitionthe learning and development of a persons language.First language acquisitionthe learning of a native or first language. Second language acquisition
30、the learning of a second or foreign language.,Overgeneralization 即概括过度 Overgeneralization (overextension)childrens treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular ; the extension of a rule beyond its proper limits. 1) Semantics any four-legged animaldog any vehiclecar any maledad 2) M
31、orphology Children overgeneralize the apparent rule of adding s to form plurals and will talk about foots and mans.,Undergeneralization 即词义缩小 Undergeneralization (underextension)the phenomenon that a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do。 The usual explanation is conceptual: prescho
32、ol children fail to extend the novel word because they do not understand that the “other” entities belong to the same category as the ones to which they extend the word.,2.2 Language production,Language productionthe process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.,Conceptualiza
33、tion: Stage one of language production. To conceptualize what is communicated is to have the idea for what is communicated. This process is called conceptualization. Formulation: Stage two of language production. To formulate what is conceptualized is to put the ideas or thoughts into words or lingu
34、istic forms, that is, to choose words and sentence structures.,Articulation: Stage three of language production. It is more difficult to observe this stage because articulators, such as the lungs, larynx and lips must be included. Self-regulation: Stage four of language production. This stage consis
35、ts of 3 parts: self-interruptions, editing expressions, and immediate repairs.,2.3 Language comprehension,Language comprehensionthe process involved in understanding the meaning of spoken and written language.,Sound comprehension Understanding language is greatly influenced by slight changes in disc
36、ourse which listeners attend to, and that listeners do not understand the information word by word. 1) Hearers cannot take down or match sounds one by one. 2) Each sound varies considerably depending on what comes before and after it. 3) There is no definite borderline between acoustically similar s
37、ounds.,Word comprehensionThree effects1) Frequency effect（频率效应） This frequency effect describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language. 2) Recency effect（近因效应） Recency effects describe the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to
38、its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.,3) Context effect（背景效应） People recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it. Sentence comprehensionTwo obstacles:(1) Ambiguity: all the meanings associated with the word are accessed, and only one me
39、aning is accessed initially.,When people are asked to finish a sentence, they take longer when the fragment to be finished contains an ambiguous word than when the ambiguous word is replaced by an unambiguous term.,He married her.Happily they left.,(2) Garden path Garden path sentencessentences that
40、 are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Sometimes people never figure it out. They have been led up the garden path, fooled into thinki
41、ng the sentence has a different structure than it has.The old man the boat.,Text comprehension In the process of understanding texts, background information plays a very important part because background knowledge can activate peoples mental association which can help the comprehension of texts.,Com
42、putational linguistics计算机语言学,Provided by 罗曼,Definition Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.,2. Mainly areas:, computer-assisted language learning (CALL); translating from one language to another; carry
43、ing our various forms of computer mediated communication; storing and finding relevant documents in large collections of text (corpus linguistics).,I will introduce computational linguistics mainly from the following aspects: 2.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)计算机辅助语言学习2.2 Machine Transla
44、tion 机器翻译2.3 Corpus Linguistics 语料库语言学,2.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning,Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL, 计算机辅助语言学习) refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.主要形式：a.使用计算机设备通过其他媒介进行与学习并行的活动 (例如，通过计算机展示文本，音频视频);b. 以印刷或教室为基础的课堂活动的延伸或改变(
45、例如，为语音学习者提供的可以记录和回放声音，并与标准音比较的软件；为语法教学设计的程序).,2.2 Machine Translation,MT: use of machines (computers) to translate texts from one language into another.Two types of MT: Unassisted MT takes pieces of text and translates them into output without human involvement. Assisted MT uses a human translator t
46、o clean up after or before machine translation.,Research methods of MT,The research methods can be represented from the perspectives of the application of linguistic theories and from the practice of MT researchers.1）Linguistic approach: linguistic theories such as TG grammar provide guidelines for
47、MT research.2）The interlingual approach: its based on the understanding that translation between all pairs of language requires only translation to and from the interlingua, then to the target language.,3）The transfer approach: theres some sort of transfer component in MT systems. This component is
48、specialized so that a pair of languages can produce a target sentence. The transfer component has a correspondence lexicon, which is a list of the source-language patterns and phrases mapped to a target language (Napier,2000). The work of this approach lies on comparative information about specific
49、pair languages so that translation is by nature an exercise in comparative linguistics.,4）the knowledge-based approach: three types of knowledge are needed so that MT systems can be improved. semantics (linguistics knowledge independent of context) pragmatics (linguistics knowledge relating to conte
50、xt) common sense/ real world knowledge the difference between the edible apple and the brand name “Apple”,2.3 Corpus linguistics,1）Corpus: a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesi
