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1、English Writing,Diction,Diction is the choice and use of words. The English language has a big vocabulary: as many as 400,000 words are collected in the Oxford English Dictionary. Of course no one knows or uses so many words. Only a small amount of them are used by ordinary people for ordinary purpo
2、ses. A student learning to write should learn to use the words that are most useful and most often used to express him.,Contents,1. Levels of words2. The meaning of words3. General and Specific Words4. Idioms5. Figures of speech英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复中英语言中用来喻人的植物的差异,1. Levels of words,词汇选择得是否准确、贴切，对文章是否能收到预期
3、的效果致关重要。在锤炼和选择词语时，除了文章的主题、思想内容、写作目的和读者对象等以外，还必须考虑与之相适应的语言层次( levels of language )。所谓语言层次，一般可归结为规范英语( standard English)和非规范英语( sub-standard English)。规范英语又可分为口语( spoken language )和书面语( written language), 非正式语( informal language)和正式语( formal language)。例如：,Officialese 公文 The consumption of any nutriment
4、s whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment商业机构.Official 官方 The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.Formal You are required not to consume food in this establishment.Neutral Eating is not allowed here.Informal Please dont eat here.Colloquial You cant feed your face here.Slang
5、Lay off the nosh 小吃.Taboo Lay off the fucking nosh.,2. The meaning of words,The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative 外延和内涵. A words denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.,For instancecountr
6、y, nation, state and land have more or less the same denotation and may all be translated into “国家” in Chinese, but their connotation are quite different.,denotative and connotative,Country means an area of land and its population and its government, nation emphasizes the people of a country, state
7、refers to the government or political organization of a country, and land is less precise but more literary and emotive than country.,English is particularly rich in synonyms as a result of incorporating words from other language over the centuries. But we should remember that it is difficult to fin
8、d two words that are exactly the same in meaning and use. They may be different in stylistic level, in the degree of emphasis, in emotional coloring, in tone语气, and in collocation.,different in stylistic level,Generally speaking, words of Anglo-Saxon origin are more informal than those of Latin or F
9、rench origin. Look at these words:ask time risequestion age mount interrogate epoch ascendIn each group, the first word is from Anglo-Saxon and the second and third from French or Latin. The first one is clearly more informal or colloquial than the other two.,different in emphasis,“Big” and “large”
10、are both commonly used words, but “large” is slightly more formal and may be used to describe things that are usually big, so it is more emphatic than “big”. “Huge”, which is more literary than those two words, means extremely large, and is more emphatic than “large”.,different in tone,“Modest” and
11、“humble” both indicate a lack of pride, but “modesty” is a virtue and “humbleness” is not. “Humble” often connotes undue self-depreciation自我贬低. So they are different in tone: one is laudatory and the other is derogatory.,3. General and Specific Words,Comparatively speaking, some words are more gener
12、al or more specific in meaning rather than others. “Professionals”, for instance, is more general in meaning than “scientists, doctors, teachers, lawyers, journalists”, etc., all of which are more specific. But “scientists” may be called a general word when compared with “physicists or chemists”, wh
13、ich, in turn, is more general than “biochemists”.,Although both general and specific words are useful, a student learning to write should make an effort to master and use specific words wherever possible. Specific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking, for they are more inform
14、ative and expressive than general words. Compare:,a good man: kind, honest, just, generous, sympathetic, warm-hearted, selfless, brave, honorablegood food: tasty, delicious, nourishing, rich, wholesome, fresh, appetizing, abundanthouse: mansion, villa, chateau, cottage, bungalow带走廊的平房, cabin, hut, s
15、hack小室, shanty棚屋, shed货棚, barnlaugh: smile, grin, beam微笑示意, giggle咯咯地笑, titter嗤笑, snigger窃笑, chuckle吃吃地笑, guffaw狂笑, chortle得意的高笑,It is easy to see that the specific words on the right are much more concrete and colorful than the general ones on the left; they seem to make the reader see, hear, or fe
16、el what the writer wishes to describe.,Use specific words should go along with providing details, and then there will be effective and impressive writing. Study the following examples:,General It is often windy and dusty here in spring.Specific In spring there is often a very strong northwest wind.
17、It carries so much fine dust with it that sometimes the sun becomes obscure. There is no escape from the fine dust; it gets into your eyes, your ears, your nostrils, and your hair. It goes through the cracks of closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.,General Students do many interesting thi
18、ngs after classes.Specific Every morning and afternoon the sports fields are alive with energetic students. Football and basketball matches, volleyball, and badminton, track-training and gymnastics are all in full swing. Even the alleyways under the trees and around the flower beds provide enough sp
19、ace for enthusiasts to practise. Through the windows comes the pitter-patter of ping-pong balls, the sound of songs and music, or laughter and discussion.,4. Idioms,An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it. “ To read a b
20、ook”, for instance, is not an idiom, for the meaning of the phrase is the meaning of the three words put together, and “a book” can be replaced by other words like “a newspaper” or a “novel”.,English is rich in idioms. The following types of idioms are most common: put up with, turn out, look forwar
21、d to, carry on, come across, a straw in the wind事态发展的一些迹象 , the apple of ones eye 掌上明珠, like a fish out of water, and so on.VOA 的美国习惯用语,Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make ones language sound natural and idiomatic 合乎语言习惯. But in using them foreign learners of English
22、should remember the following two points:,(1) most idioms are informal or colloquial in style and can be used in conversation; but a few are slang and should be used with care, such as “all balled up”, meaning “troubled or confused”, and to “cough up”, meaning to “produce something”; (2) many idioms
23、 have become clichs and are no longer fresh or interesting, such as “armed to the teeth” and “as good as gold好到极点”, and should be used sparingly.,5. Figures of speech,Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons
24、 or calling up pictures in the readers or listeners mind are used figuratively. In “a colorful garden” the word “colorful” is used in its literal sense, but in a “a colorful life” and “a colorful career” the word is used in its figurative meaning: exciting, interesting, and rich in variety. The word
25、 suggests a comparison between ”life or career“ and something that has different colors, like “a garden”, and because of this association the word is more impressive than a word used in its literal sense, such as “interesting and exciting”.,There are various ways of using words figuratively. They ar
26、e called figures of speech. Among the most common of them are:1) Simile It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word “as or like ”:O my loves like a red, red rose.That man cant be trusted. Hes as slippery as an eel.The old mans hair is as whi
27、te as snow.,2) Metaphor It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison, but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word as or like. If Robert Burns had written “O my loves a red rose” with the word “like” omit
28、ted he would have used a metaphor instead of a simile. In the changed line, “my love” is also compared to a red rose, but there is no word to indicate the comparison; hence rose is a metaphor. Similarly, in sentences like “He is the soul of the team. ” and “Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture
29、”, “soul” and “lifeblood” are used metaphorically.,Metaphors are used not only after verb “to be”, and not only nouns can be used metaphorically. Study the following examples:The picture of those poor peoples lives was carved so happily in his heart that he could never forget it.The street faded int
30、o a country road with a straggling house by it.There are a few lordly poplars 白杨 before the house.He often prefaced his remarks by “I cant help thinking ”,3) Personification It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or bad human qualities. In poetry, personification is very common:Youth
31、is hot and boldAge is weak and coldYouth is wild, and Age is tameIn these lines “youth and age” are described like two persons. In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.,The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.This time fate is smiling to him.T
32、hunder roared and a pouring rain started.Dusk came stealthily.,The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.This time fate is smiling to him.Thunder roared and a pouring rain started.Dusk came stealthily.,4) Metonymy转喻,换喻 It is substituting the name of one thing for that of anoth
33、er with which it is closely associated. Thus “the crown” can stand for “a king”, and “the White House” for “the American government”, the “bottle” for “wine or alcohol”, and the “bar” for the “legal profession”. When metonymy is well used, brevity and vividness may be achieved:Sword and cross in han
34、d, the European conquerors fell upon the Americans. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.,5) Synecdoche提喻 When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied:The farms were short of hands during the harvest season.He had
35、 to earn his daily bread by doing odd jobs.Metonymy and synecdoche are similar as both involve substitution. Sometimes they can hardly be distinguished from metaphor, which in a way is also substitution.,6) Euphemism It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one,
36、 for example:Ugly: homely/plainFat: heavyset/ chubby/ plump/ stoutSkinny: slender/ slim/willowy/ svelteTo die: to pass away/ leave us/ ones heart has stopped beatingOld people: senior citizens/elderly/ advanced in ageMad: emotionally disturbedDustman: sanitation worker,7) Irony 反话 It is the use of w
37、ords, which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect. Suppose you planned an outing on a certain day, expecting it to be fine; but when the day came it was raining heavily. If you said “What a fine day!” you were speaking ironically. This diligent student seldom re
38、ads more than an hour per month.,8) Overstatement and understatement In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole夸张. Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or
39、description impressive or interesting.She is dying to know what job has been assigned her.It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.,9) Transferred Epithet 移位An epithet 绰号 is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something. A transferred epithet is
40、 one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with noun. When one says that “He has had a busy day”, one is using such a figure of speech. For it is the person, not the day, that is busy.She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.The old
41、man put a reassuring hand on my shoulder.用来修饰人的分词有时可以转移到修饰非人的事物,这种分词在形式上虽不直接修饰人,但它所修饰的事物仍与人直接有关.,10) Oxymoron矛盾修辞 In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.The coach had to be cruel and kind to his trainees.She read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smi
42、le.,11) Alliteration 头韵It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words, such as “proud as a peacock” and “blind as a bat”. Alliteration is often used in poetry to give emphasis to words that are related in meaning.,英文写作中怎样避免用词的重复,在英语的文章中，我们可以看到，除了表示强调或为了避免意义的含糊外，
43、同一个词或短语很少在同一个句子中连续使用，有时，在一个句群或段落中也避免重复使用相同的词。避免词汇重复是英语句子的又一特点。这一特点最明显的标志是，英语代词的使用频率远远高于汉语。英语主要是通过使用代词、同义词、近义词和省略等手段来避免重复。,1使用代词回避重复,这是最普通，也是常见的一种方法。Can you mend this table? I broke it yesterday.When he entered，each was given a small present,2用同义词避免重复,这里说的同义词是一个比较宽泛的概念。它包括范畴词、相近词(near-synonym)和派生词等。T
44、he monkeys extraordinary performance was learning to operate a tractor. By the age of nine，the animal had learned to drive the vehicle single-handed在第二句仍要提及monkey和tractor，为了回避重复，作者用了animal和vehicle这两个范畴词来替代。范畴词虽然意义宽泛，不太确切，但是在特定的上下文中一般不会引起误解，而且行文也显得更加活泼了。,3用省略手段回避重复,省略的主要功能就是避免重复，并能突出新的信息。省略是英语的一种习惯用法
45、，它能节省词语，使语句结构显得紧凑。,1)省略名词He spoke for the first motion and against the second(the secondthe second motion)They are fine actors. Smith is the finest Ive ever seen有时，名词的省略出现在相同的名词之前。Cut off the first and last parts of the play，and leave then middle(the firstthe first part of the play),2)省略动词谈到动词的省略，典型
46、的例子应首推培根关于读书的那段名言。Some books are to be tasted，others (are) to be swallowed，and some few (are) to be chewed and digested书有可浅尝者，有可尽食者，少数则需咀嚼消化。Jack neednt stay here，but George mustJohn won the first race and Jim (won) the second.,3)省略形容词相比较而言，英语中省略形容词来避免重复的情形，不如其他词类多。Robert seemed angry，and George cer
47、tainly was (angry),4)省略从句I did not notice it till too late(till it was too late)l must get it done whatever the cost(whatever the cost may be)He gave the same answer as before(as he has given before),为了回避词语的重复，人们通常采用以上这4种省略手段。省略手段看似容易，因为有些内容可以略去不表，其实不然，能够做到正确地省略，说明一个人句子的运用能力已经达到纯熟的地步。有运用得当的省略句更能显示出学
48、习者英语的规范性、地道性。避免重复是英语句子表达的一条原则。但是从词类的角度看，重复的多是名词、动词和形容词这些实词，而词义较抽象的代词、介词、助动词等虚词则不怕重复。这样看来，英语句子是“避实就虚”，而虚词的重复常常是为了避免实词的重复。,4避免重复与避免中式英语,避免重复这条原则对中国学生还有一层特殊的意义。受汉语表达习惯的影响，中国学生用英语表达思想时，常常不自觉地加上不必要的修饰语。这些修饰语虽然在汉语中也是重复(如“毫无根据的捏造”)，但是它们显得自然，符合汉语的表达习惯。可是，如果把这些修饰语也译成英语，效果就适得其反了，既累赘，又有失表达的准确。,例如：汉语中，我们可以说，“请给
49、我们多提宝贵意见”，但是用英语表达时就不必说Please gives us your valuable opinions别人能提出意见、建议，我们肯定应该认为是宝贵的，再用valuable一词就是多余的，正确的说法应是Your opinions will be appreciated还有一个典型的例子，在表达“他的病情好多了”这一汉语句子时，中国学生往往说成His sick condition is much better实际上，condition本身就表示“疾病”(sickness，illness)，所以句中的sick也是一种无意义的重复，地道的表达方法是 His condition is
50、much better或者可以更简单地说 He is much better,此外，在用英语表达汉语中的“吃饭”、“读书”、“唱歌”、“付钱”、“换车”这些动宾结构的概念时，中国学生往往把宾语表达出来，而实际上，英语的有些动词本身已经含有宾语所表示的意思，不言自明，一般是可以省略的，加上宾语则有可能形成画蛇添足，说出中国式的英语。现举例如下：,Have you heard (any news) from your daughter recently?Write (letters) to me oftenDick was mad about booksHe made notes while he
