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1、Lecture 2,Basic Concepts and Principles,Are different languages comparable?If they are comparable in principle,what to compare?How to compare?,2.1 Comparability between languages,A scientific Comparison:-A scientific comparison is,in general,based on a common base.,What is language?A language is a s
2、ystem of human communication which consists of units like morphemes,words,sentences,and utterances.It is a system of symbols which combine sounds and meanings together.,Phonology lexicology grammarComparabilityequivalenceThe similarity shared by the two linguistic units under comparison,microlinguis
3、tic and macrolinguistic.,2.1.1 Comparability and Microlinguistic Considerations:Inner structure of language and comparabilitylevels of language structure the language system phonological,lexical,syntactic categories.the pronoun system,the noun system,the preposition system,etc.,E.g English-word orde
4、r and function words,Chinese prepositions VS English adverbs,The comparability of the inner structure of languagesCarl James(1980):First,the categories of different languages identified by the same label often have something in common.,Second,comparability does not request absolute identity,but mere
5、ly a certain extent of shared similarity.e,g.(你you)The similarity(interlingual identification)is the point of departure for CL,but identification is not meant to be identity.As for the differences,these are exactly what CL aims for.,e.g.,A contrastive study of the lexical system in Chinese and Engli
6、sh,A contrastive study of the verbs in Chinese and English,A contrastive study of the“看“verbs in Chinese and English,2.1.2 Comparability and Macrolinguistic ConsiderationsThe varieties of a language-the change of time,space and the social situations.varieties related with the user varieties related
7、with the use.,Varieties related with the user:temporal dialect,geographical dialect,social dialect,idiolect Varieties related with the use:field of discourse,mode of discourse,tenor of discourse,2.1.2.1 Varieties related with the usergeographical dialect and social dialect(socialect).,Geographical D
8、ialectNational geographical dialect,China Japan,India Singapore,BritainU.S.A.CanadaAustralia,West African,China English or Chinese English?A variety or unidiomatic English?,regional geographical dialectsScotland EnglishIsland EnglishHow many dialects are there in Chinese?,Northern dialect Wu dialect
9、 Yue dialect Xiang DialectGan Dialect Kejia Dialect Northern Min Dialect Southern Min Dialect,The differences between dialects are shown on pronunciation.vocabularygrammar,The influence of geographical dialect on CL is mainly shown in the respect of collecting linguistic material.1.to choose a regio
10、nal dialect from each of the two languages.2.to choose the standard dialects of the two languages,Socialectoccupation,education,income“Linguistically what one says will largely be determined by where one fits in the hierarchy.”Michael Gregory,“standard English”or“educated English”,“uneducated Englis
11、h”or“substandard/nonstandard English”.The differences between social dialects may be phonological,lexical,grammatical.,With respect to vocabulary,U Non-U Lavatory toilet Looking glass mirror Scent perfume,SyntacticallyBlack English“He nice”/“He be nice”.I aint see nothing like dat no place.(I have n
12、ot seen that thing in any place.),Graphically,the relationship between sociolectal variations in L1 and L2 is very likely to take the following form:,Socialects of L1 Socialects of L2,S3,S1,S2,S4,S5,S1,S2,S3,S4,Black English VernacularA Chinese vernacular(?),An assumption,The linguistic differences
13、between different socialects in English are more distinctive than those between socialects in Chinese.,2.1.1.2 Varieties related with the useregister.“the category of register is postulated to account for what people do with their language activity in the various contexts in which it takes place.”-H
14、alliday,Registers can be described in terms of differences in vocabulary,grammar,etc.between two language activities,(a sports commentary and a church service.)Lexis-the most evident indicator of a register.E.g.“tablespoonful”,“neckline”,There are also considerable differences in grammar.Many regist
15、ers show specific grammatical characteristics.(newspaper headline,advertising,and church service,)I am sending youPlease find enclosed,Register:Field of discourse(交际领域),Mode of discourse（交际方式）Tenor of discourse（交际关系）,Field of discourse-whats going on,the area of operation of the language activity.It
16、 is close to the subject matter,content and the purpose of the communication.“jargon”,-scientific jargon,football jargon,and gambling jargon.,The differences between different fieldslexis.E.g.phoneme(音素)，morpheme(语素)most probably appear in linguistics.,In grammar.E.g.the passive voice in technical E
17、nglish Eg.(1)You can rectify this fault if you insert a wedge.(如果你插入一片锲片，就可以修正这种误差。)(2)Rectification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a wedge.(这种误差的修正可用插入锲片的方法来取得。),Mode of discourse refers to the medium of the language activity.Mode of discourse speaking.writing.spontaneous non-spontaneous
18、.expository narrative argumentative,For example:a lecture on linguistics-in the technical field of discourse,in the medium of speaking,non-spontaneously,expository.,The mode of discourse may influence the lexis,grammar and textual organization of a language activity.a pure speaking mode-the loose an
19、d free syntactic organization,simple and short sentences,and the use of familiar words.,Tenor of discourse refers to the relationship among the participants.What roles does a man play in the society?,From the linguistic perspective,tenors of discourse determine the style of the language,from colloqu
20、ial to polite.,Martin Joos,in his The Five Clocks,suggests five dimensions of English style,each with different lexis and grammatical features:Frozen（冷漠体）Formal（正式体）Consultative（商量体）Casual（随便体）-Intimate（亲密体）。,For example:FrozenVisitors should make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the s
21、taircase.FormalVisitors should go up the staircase at once.ConsultativeWould you mind going upstairs right away.CasualTime you all went upstairs now.IntimateUp you go,chaps!,equivalenceThe comparability of the materials in contrastive linguistics depends on the equivalence of the various dimensions
22、in register.,The organizational pattern of letters in different culturesFieldbusiness letterModewritten modeTenor-two businessmen who are not familiar with each other,Quantitative Analysis of Styles of English and ChineseBy 曹合建,“杀”English:murder,kill,slay,make away with,bump off,get rid of,cut down,
23、put an end to.Chinese:杀、诛、戮、结果、戕,English:1)In my opinion he is not the man whom we desire.2)I believe that he is not the man whom we want.3)I dont think hes the man we are looking for.4)Afraid hes not our man.5)Bummer,eh?Chinese:恭请您光临寒舍。请你来我家一趟。上我家来一下！,中性值定为0，正式级定为+1，非正式级定为-1。分析统计时只要将语篇中所有正成分和负成分的值相
24、加，然后除以整个语篇的词语和句子总数，所得百分比便是该语篇语体值。程雨民（1989）32 个区分语体正式程度的成分,分析语料：1，正式的法律条文 The Amendments to the US Constitution 国有企业财产监督管理条例2 理论性文章 Some definitions of language 未来教育的特点3新闻分析与评述 Canada Submarine Plan Ruffles U.S.外交大臣谈生意4 电影话剧剧本对话 The Third Man 路5 较正式的访谈 Why it is good for children to read 培养孩子的语言能力,正成
25、分（%）负成分（%）The Amendments to the US Constitution 13.9 0Some definitions of language 11.6 0.5Canada Submarine Plan Ruffles U.S.7.6 1.2The Third Man 2.6 12.5Why it is good for children to read 2.6 13.4国有企业财产监督管理条例 8.7 0未来教育的特点 7.1 0.2外交大臣谈生意 6 0.7 路 0.9 1.8培养孩子的语言能力 1.7 3,英语各语体之间差异13.9-2.6=11.3/13.4-0=
26、13.4汉语：8.7-0.9=7.8 3-0=3,结论：汉语语体变化是一个较为平缓的过程英语语体之间的变化幅度大于汉语语体。从整体上来说，汉语的语体成分没有英语丰富，汉语成为一种语体特征相对模糊的语言。,Review:Comparabilitywithin language itself outside language(the language user and the language use),2.2 Types of TC,Interlingual identification,the common basis and point of departure for a contrast
27、ive study,is called tertium comparationis:a third thing related in some way to two things.,Language A,Language B,TC,Tertium Comparationis(teria comparationes):A TC is the common point of departure or reference in a contrastive description of two languages,which is usually a universal property or cat
28、egory or at least a property or category shared by the two languages under comparison.,TC1 material substance Extra-linguistic TC2 social context TC3 communicative situationTC TC4 linguistic system Form TC5 linguistic structure TC6 linguistic rule Intra-linguistic TC7 grammatical function Function T
29、C8 textual function TC9 functional load,Material substance as TC:two typesFirst,the material substance on which language relies(the phonological substance and the graphic substance)./P/-/P/手纸手纸（日）second,the realistic substance in the world that a linguistic item denotes.(the color wordsspectrum as T
30、C),TC2-social context:the social circumstances and the context in which a language is used.The social context can serve as the TC of contrastive sociolinguistics and contrastive stylistics.(dialect spoken by the lower class),TC3-communicative situation refers to the exact situation in which people m
31、unicative situation can serve as TC for contrastive pragmatics.,TC4-linguistic systemphonological,lexical,and grammatical systems.E.g.a comparison between Chinese and English diphthongs,TC5-linguistic structure refers to a sequence of linguistic units that are in a certain relationship to one anothe
32、r.The linguistic structure is concerned with the syntagmatic relations,e.g.“article+adjective+noun”E.g.a contrastive study of the double objects structure in Chinese and English.双宾B gave S an apple.B gave an apple to S.,TC6-linguistic ruleswe can use the same linguistic rules as TC to see whether th
33、ere are differences in the extent of the application of the rules in the two languages.(Wh-fronting)What are you doing?你在做什么？,TC7-grammatical function Each grammatical device has a grammatical function.The functions of the devices can be classified into several categories,including the gender,number
34、,and cases(nouns),tenses and aspects(verbs),etc.Cases in English and German,TC8-Textual functionSome devices are employed to create written or spoken texts which are coherent and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.The discourse markers in Chinese and English,TC9-Functional loa
35、dIn general,the term is used to refer to the frequency of usage of a linguistic unit.E.g.“这”、“那”in Chinese and“this”“that”in English“这”has a larger functional load in Chinese than“this”in English.,2.3.Data for CAData used in linguistic study in general fall into two broad types:First,primary data.Se
36、cond,secondary data.,2.3.1.Primary data1)Corpus-based data(实例语料)The collection of this data is based on the actual use of a language.translationally equivalent data functionally equivalent data.,Translationally equivalent data is usually based on pragmatic translation equivalence.unidirectional data
37、,Bidirectional data,unidirectional data C(o)E(t)bidirectional data C(o)E(t)E(o)C(t),Functionally equivalent data are the linguistic materials equivalent in social function and register.e.g.A contrastive study of the language in Chinese and English ads.Ads print ads commercials Cosmetic commercialsth
38、e parallel texts for job advertisements,death notices,abstracts for scientific papers,2)Intuition-based data（内省语料）Intuition-based data are collected by inducing the linguistic material from the native speakers of a language who are linguistically nave.,introspective data(自我内省语料)the linguistic materi
39、als that the researcher himself makes on the basis of his own intuition as the native speaker of a language.experimental data(实验语料)the linguistic material produced by other native speakers of a language through experiment.,2.3.2 Secondary data:The description of the linguistic items under comparison
40、 by linguists of the two languages.,2.4 General Procedure in Carrying out CA2.4.1 A more theoretically oriented CAGenerally a contrastive study follows six steps:,1)Determining the scope of studyThe scope of study includes three aspects:a.linguistic level b.linguistic unit c.contents of description.
41、,linguistic level(phonology,lexis,grammar,text,and pragmatics.)linguistic unit Textual pattern cohesive devices anaphora this/thatcontent of description the constituents,their grammatical functions,textual functions,cohesive roles,2).Review of the previous literatureFirst is the contrastive studies
42、already done in the area.E.g.The contrastive study of anaphora in Chinese and EnglishSecond is the separate studies of the two languages in the area.e.g.The study of anaphora in Chinese and English,3)Choosing a theoretical model/frameworkThe theoretical framework for contrastive study refers to cert
43、ain linguistic theory or model that serves as a framework for contrastive description.,4)Collection of data for analysis text-Attention should be paid to the style,genre,time,and types of the texts.,5)Contrastive analysis of the dataIn the course of analysis we need to pay attention to two issues:A.
44、Usually we may find that,in the literature available,the analyses of the two languages are not balanced.B.More importantly,since the framework available is usually based on one language,we may have to modify it when we want to use it as a framework for the analysis of another language.,6).Summing-up
45、 of the resultsSum up the findings,discuss its theoretical and practical implications,touch on the limitations.A pilot studyanalysis in a small scale.,Structure of empirical research,IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResultsDiscussionConclusion,指同表达的对比研究,He found a bundle of newly washed cloth
46、es in the corner of the bedroom and mingled his own clothes with them.他发现在卧室的角落里有一堆刚刚洗过的衣服，他把自己的衣服与它们放在一起。他把自己的衣服与那些衣服放在一起。,Cohesion,The use of grammatical and lexical devices to help the sentences hang together.1.SubstitutionHe is ill.So am I,2.Reference-the use of such words as demonstrative prono
47、uns,personal pronouns,and the definite article to refer to what has been mentioned earlier or to what is going to be mentioned later.e.g.Gorge is a student in this school.He is a boy of 13.（ZA）这几天心里很不平静。,3.Ellipsis the omission of some parts in the sentence.E.g.Are you a teacher?Yes,Im.4.Conjunction
48、sHe was ill,so he asked for leave.5.Lexical cohesion(repetition,synonyms,antonyms)E.g.the use of synonyms of“delay”and procrastination,Questions:1.What is the purpose of the study?2.What kind of data is used?,学习动物精神,11、机智应变的猴子：工作的流程有时往往是一成不变的，新人的优势在于不了解既有的做法，而能创造出新的创意与点子。一味 地接受工作的交付，只能学到工作方法 的皮毛，能思考应 变的人，才会学到 方法的精髓。,学习动物精神,12、善解人意的海豚：常常问自己：我是主管该怎么办才能有助于更好的处理事情的方法。在工作上善解人意，会减轻主管、共 事者的负担，也 让你更具人缘。,谢谢大家！,
