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1、1,Chapter 5,SPEECH ACTS,2,5.SPEECH ACTS,5.1 History and Introduction5.2 Promises5.3 Speech Acts Verbs 5.4 Indirect Speech Acts5.5 Classifying Speech Acts,3,5.1 History and Introduction,John L.Austin,John R.Searle,4,5.1 History and Introduction,Speech Acts:the basic or minimal units of linguistic com
2、munication(Searle:1969)The unit of linguistic communication is not,as has generally been supposed,the symbol,word or sentence,but rather the production of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of speech act.(Searle:1969)Speech Acts is intentional.,5,Proposition,The basic meaning which a
3、sentence expresses.Propositions consist of sth.which is named or talked about(known as the argument or entity);An assertion or predication which is made about the argument.,6,Marias friend,Tony,who is a dentist,likesapples.Underlying propositions:Maria has a friend.The friends name is Tony.Tony is a
4、 dentist.Tony likes apples.,7,In Speech Act theory,utterances have 2 kinds of meanings,Propositional meaning/locutionary meaning Basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance containsIllocutionary meaning/illocutionary forcethe ef
5、fect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.,8,e.g.Im thirsty.Locutionary meaning:physical conditionIllocutionary meaning:want sth.to drinkA speech act is a sentence or utterancewhich has both propositional meaningand illocutionary force.,9,5.1 History and Introduction,Original
6、distinction between the different aspects of speech acting:(Austin)LOCUTIONARY ACT(说话行为):the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference;ILLOCUTIONARY ACT(施事行为):the making of a statement,offer,promise,etc.In uttering with it;PERLOCUTIONARY ACT(取效行为):the bringing about of effects on
7、the audience by means of uttering the sentence,such efforts being special to the circumstances of utterance.,10,Felicity conditions,In Speech Act theory,the condition which mustbe fulfilled for a speech act to be satisfactorilyperformed or realized.,11,Felicity conditions,A sentence is used which st
8、ates a future act of speaker.The speaker has the ability to do the act.The hearer prefers the speaker to do the act rather than not to do it.The speaker would not otherwise usually do the act.The speaker intends to do the act.,12,5.2 Promises,?What is it that“counts as”a promise?Searle:Something cou
9、nts as something only within a specified set of rules.As to promises,there are dozens of ways to make a promise in a particular language,and it is only the context which can determine whether a particular expression counts as a promise.(Searle:1969),13,5.2.1.1 The Problem,?How can we determine a spe
10、ech act?How many speech acts are there?What is the relationship between a speech act and a pragmatic act?Are there speech acts(or pragmatic acts)that are found across languages,or even in all languages?(“universal speech acts”),14,5.2.2.2 Promises:conditions and rules,Condition 1:normal Condition 2:
11、contentCondition 3:futureCondition 4:advantageousCondition 5:not obviousCondition 6:sincerityCondition 7:essentialCondition 8:semanticalCondition 9:pragmatical,-Speakers must use their language normally(not handicaps,not joking or acting),-The promise must have a content.,-The content must have to d
12、o with a future,possible action of the speaker,-What is promised must be to the advantage of the“promisee”.,-The content must not be something which clearly is going to happen anyway.,-The promiser must be sincere in caring out the act of promise,-The promiser intends to put himself or herself under
13、 the obligation of carrying out the act of promise.,-The language must obey the semantical rules.,-The language must be pragmatically correct.,Preparatory conditions,15,5.2.1.2 Promises:conditions and rules,Condition 1:normal Condition 2:contentCondition 3:futureCondition 4:advantageousCondition 5:n
14、ot obviousCondition 6:sincerityCondition 7:essentialCondition 8:semanticalCondition 9:pragmatical,All speech acts,All speech acts,All speech acts,Promising,16,5.2.1.2 Promises:conditions and rules,Illocutionary force indicating device(IFID)施为用意表达策略 Rule 1:Only use a promissory IFID when the content
15、of the utterance is about something which is to happen in the future.(The content rule)(Con 2,3)Rule 2:Only use the promissory IFID when the promise contains something that the promisee actually wants to happen to him or her.(The preparatory rule)(Con 4),17,5.2.1.2 Promises:conditions and rules,Rule
16、 3:Only use a promissory IFID when the content of the promise dose not concern the occurrence of an already scheduled,self-justifying or natural happening.(The preparatory rule)(Con 5)Rule 4:Only use the promissory IFID if you intend to carry out your above.(The sincerity rule)(Con 6)Rule 5:Only use
17、 the promissory IFID on condition that the promise is uttered and recognized(accepted)as creating an obligation from the promiser to the promisee.(The essential rule)(Con 7),18,5.2.1.2 Promises:conditions and rules,Rule 5:The essential ruleRule 1:The content ruleRule 2:The preparatory ruleRule 3:The
18、 preparatory ruleRule 4:The sincerity rule,Constitutive Rule,Regulative Rule,The IFIDs of speech act theory only indicate the illocutionary force;they dont put that force to work.To do that,we need to lift the speech act out of the domain of abstract description into that of concrete action:speech a
19、ct becomes pragmatic act.,19,5.3 Speech Act Verbs,Speech Acts:Syntactic-morphological distinctionsSemantic distinctionsSearle:RepresentativesDirectivesCommissivesExpressivesDeclarations,Lumpers:a fewSplitters:a great number 500-600(Verschueren)1000-9999(Austin),20,Austin(1962),Ill be there.You must
20、sit down.I promise Ill be there.I order you to sit down.,Constatives(表述句),Performatives(施为句),Truth value(真值),Hypothesis(假设),5.3 Speech Act Verbs,21,5.3 Speech Act Verbs,Performatives(行事动词):A verb that explicitly names the speech act.Example:The verb“promise”in“I promise to be there”.“to baptize”,“to
21、 invest”,“to sentence”Not all speech acts(SAs)are represented by a specific speech act verb(SAV)Example:I order you to shut the door.Shut the door!You will shut the door.,22,5 kinds of Performative verbs,to decree,to convict,to estimate,to condemn,to judge,to diagnose,to appraise,to absolve,to chara
22、cterize,to rank,to rate,etc.,Verdictives(裁决类):,23,2.Excutives(行使类),to vote,to appoint,to order,to nominate,to bequeath,to resign,to annul,to advise,to urge,etc.,24,3.Commissives(承诺类),to promise,to guarantee,to pledge,to commit,to oppose,to undertake,to intend,to plan,to swear,to vow,etc.,25,4.Exposi
23、tives(阐述类),to affirm,to state,to deny,to describe,to refer to,to argue,to illustrate,to explain,to define,to agree,etc.,26,5.Behabitives(表态类),to apologize,to thank,to complain,to congratulate,to compliment,to condole,to criticize,to sympathize,to deplore,to bless,to welcome,etc.,27,5.3 Speech act ve
24、rbs,Not every SA has a corresponding,custom-made SAV of its own.Example:The act of pronouncing a jurys finding is called to“render a verdict”;however,there is no SAV“to verdict”.,28,5.3 Speech Act Verbs,One can perform an SA without having an explicit performative at ones proposal.The”explicit perfo
25、rmatives”are the most extreme cases of SAVs,in that they can perform,and necessarily perform,certain SAs for which they are designated.Performativity is a property that is not specifically bound up with SAVs.,29,5.3 Speech Act Verbs,Speech acts without SAVs:Example:I want to express my gratitude for
26、 your valuable assistance.I want to thank you for your help.,30,Indirect Speech Act,Conventional indirect speech act(规约性间接语言行为),Non-Conventional indirect speech act(非规约性间接语言行为),5.4 Indirect Speech Acts,31,5.4 Indirect Speech Acts,Example 1:Could you move a bit?Yes./-Yes,perhaps I could.Example 2:Let
27、s go to the movies tonight.I have to study for an exam.?What is this person trying to tell his or her interlocutor?How do we know its a rejection?philosophical-semanticpragmatic,32,5.4 Indirect Speech Acts,Philosophical-semantic way:Combination of 2 acts:a primary illocutionary act(rejecting a propo
28、sal),a secondary one(making a statement)where the primary act operates through,and the in force of,the secondary one.The Ten steps of Searle:,33,5.4 Indirect Speech Acts,Pragmatic view:We must ask,first of all,when exercising our power of speech,what effects our speech acting has,or can have,when pr
29、eformed in the actual social surroundings.,34,5.5 Classifying Speech Acts,Searles classification:(1977)12 criteria:Illocutionary pointDirection of fitExpressed psychological stateContentReferenceSocial institutionsContextual conditions of speech actingRepresentativesDirectivesCommissivesExpressivesd
30、eclarations,35,5.5 Classifying Speech Acts,Searles classification:(1977)RepresentativesDirectivesCommissivesExpressivesDeclarations,36,Indirect Speech Act Theory Searle,Illocutionary Speech Act,Assertives(断言类)/Reprsentatives(表述类),Directives(指令类),Commisives(承诺类),Expressives(表达类),Declarations(宣告类),37,
31、Assertives:assert,claim,affirm,state,deny,inform,notify,remind,etc.Directives:advise,ask,beseech,command,demand,order,request,tell,urge,etc.Commisives:commit,consent,guarantee,offer,pledge,promise,refuse,threaten,etc.Expressives:apologize,boast,congratulate,deplore,regret,thank,welcome,etc.Declarations:appoint,bless,christen,declare,name,nominate,resign,etc.,38,Thank you!,
