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1、CULTURAL ADAPTATION IN CROSS BORDER E-COMMERCE: A STUDY OF GERMAN COMPANIESRudolf R. SinkovicsManchester Business School The University of ManchesterUnited KingdomRudolf.Sinkovicsmbs.ac.ukMo YaminManchester Business School The University of ManchesterUnited KingdomMo.Yaminmbs.ac.ukMatthias Hossinger
2、Manchester Business School The University of ManchesterUnited KingdomMatthias.Hossingerpostgrad.mbs.ac.ukABSTRACTThe standardization vs. adaptation debate in international marketing is still ongoing, yet, in the online realm the discussion is only just emerging. While practitioners are excited to ju
3、mp on the online communication and commerce bandwagon, empirical research on the issue of online standardization vs. adaptation is still relatively limited and mostly concerns US firms. This paper explores 100 German companies domestic, U.S., U.K. and Latin American websites and employs a cultural v
4、alue analysis. We build on Hofstedes and Halls cultural framework. Findings suggest that cultural value depiction is not very strong in the relevant markets, thus a certain degree of cultural alienation takes place. It is suggested that to engage better with their customer and reach better cultural
5、congruency companies need to work harder on developing culturally adapted websites.Keywords: online standardization, adaptation, cultural analysis1. IntroductionNearly a billion people are already connected to the Internet Okazaki 2004. Between 2000 and 2005 the Internet experienced a growth of 160%
6、 Internet World Stats 2005, making it a source of about US-$3.2 trillion in revenues for businesses and their e-commerce activities Singh, Zhao, and Hu 2003. Hence, web-presence is arguably crucial in terms of improving international marketing efforts Vivekanandan and Rajendran 2006, and overall bus
7、iness-success Alvarez, Kasday, and Todd 1998. However, although websites are virtually accessible to anybody from anywhere, truly tapping into online customers involves more than simply putting up a website. Yamin and Sinkovics Yamin and Sinkovics 2006 point to the particular dangers connected with
8、over-reliance on digital media. They argue that by being close to customers but distant from markets, companies may become susceptible to falling into a virtuality trap. Appropriate relational governance mechanisms see e.g. Wu et al. 2007 are considered necessary to reduce the possibility of this vi
9、rtuality trap. Boshoff 2007 suggests that with the Internet as a retailing channel, distinctive service delivery and service quality criteria need to be developed. The study by Lynch and Beck 2001 is particularly relevant in this respect. They point out that the rapid growth of the internet created
10、an exaggerated expectation that it would enable companies to create a new, standardized mode of communication, one where buyers would speak and be comfortable with the same “electronic language”, regardless of region, culture or class Lynch and Beck 2001. However their empirical finding indicated th
11、at even with increased electronic interaction people still need to feel culturally and contextually engaged with vendors, even online Lynch and Beck 2001. Later studies have confirmed these findings. Lim et al. 2004 have observed, that the virtual space on the Internet is not boundary-less or cultur
12、e-free. Similar observations have been made by e.g. Singh and Baack 2004 and Singh, Furrer, and Ostinelli 2004. Whilst these studies focus on cultural characteristics of buyers or consumers from different countries and regions, other studies have focused on firm strategies in terms of the degree of
13、standardization and/or adaptation they incorporate in the content and design of their country or region specific websites Okazaki 2004. Thus, paralleling the long-standing debate on standardization vs. adaptation in international marketing e.g. Agrawal 1995; Theodosiou and Leonidou 2003, there is di
14、scussion on whether, in the online domain, adaptation of website content and design to local cultural manifestations or their standardization to effectively transmit online content is the more appropriate strategy. There is also a lack of empirical evidence in the fields of “applied culture” on the
15、Internet; hence, evidence as to whether a contingency perspective Agrawal 1995; Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006 is appropriate and in which context are limited. A further limitation is that extant literature focuses heavily on U.S. culture and companies Okazaki 2004; Singh, Zhao, and Hu 2003.
16、 Moreover, we witness methodological weaknesses such as relatively small sample sizes Fink and Laupase 2000; Singh and Baack 2004; Singh, Furrer, and Ostinelli 2004; Singh, Zhao, and Hu 2003 and a somewhat limited depth of cultural analysis Okazaki and Rivas 2002. Following a review of the literatur
17、e, this paper replicates and extends the methodological approach suggested by Singh et al. 2005, in the context of German MNCs. We consider such a replication to be valuable to understand whether findings can be generalized to different populations Hubbard and Armstrong 1994, and to establish suppor
18、t beyond one-shot studies Evanschitzky et al. 2007, particularly given the narrow focus of prior research on only few countries. We explore whether German MNCs employed culturally adapted online communication strategies in their own domestic habitat and country-specific websites in the U.S., U.K. an
19、d in Latin America. Cultural values are measured using Hofstedes 1991 and Halls 1976 dimensional approach.2. Conceptual background2.1. The standardization vs. adaptation debate The standardization/adaptation debate in international marketing has inspired academics and practitioners for more than thr
20、ee decades. Arguments of cost reduction, scale- and scope-effects, brand building as well as meeting customer demands, culture-bound preferences and expectations have resulted in contributions on either the standardization or adaptation side of the continuum Alashban et al. 2002; Buzzell 1968; Fatt
21、1967; Levitt 1983; Mueller 1992; Papavassiliou and Stathakopoulos 1997; Rutigliano 1986; Walters 1986; Yip 1989. The standardization approach has been criticized by many practitioners and marketing professionals as overly product oriented. As Douglas and Wind 1987 point out, standardization per se “
22、implies a product orientation, and a product driven strategy, rather than a strategy grounded in the systematic analysis of customer behavior and response patterns and market characteristics.”. Negative implications of pure product oriented strategies have also been outlined by Levitt 1960 and Laugh
23、lin et al. 1994. Cavusgil and Zou 1994 also point to disadvantages in terms of vulnerability to competitive attacks see also Ricks 1999; Zou, Andrus, and Norvell 1997 and others point to the lack of responsiveness to diverse governmental, economical/ecological and socio-cultural settings Doz and Pra
24、halad 1980; Zou and Cavusgil 1996. The contingency-perspective see e.g. Agrawal 1995; Cavusgil, Zou, and Naidu 1993 has removed the binary-choice element from the discussion, suggesting that the decision will depend on issues such as product category, industry, competition etc. e.g. Jain 1989; Kusti
25、n 2004; Quelch and Hoff 1986; Subramaniam and Hewett 2004; Theodosiou and Leonidou 2003; Walters and Toyne 1989. This adaptive strategy has been empirically examined by numerous authors in various degrees of empirical sophistication see e.g. Agrawal 1995; Green, Cunningham, and Cunningham 1975; Joha
26、nsson 1994; Mueller 1992; Onkvisit and Shaw 1987. Katsikeas, Samiee and Theodosiou 2006 provide what in our view is the most rigorous empirical examination of this perspective. 2.2. Standardization on the internetGiven the very large and rapidly growing number of Internet users in many countries the
27、re is an enormous growth potential for online commerce in both the B2B and B2C markets. Attractions exist for managers in terms of cost savings in the online domain Quelch and Klein 1996 and efficiency effects of market transactions Petersen, Welch, and Liesch 2002; Jean 2007. For Singh and Boughton
28、 2002 a standardized web site entails “the same web content, in the same language, for both domestic and international users. Standardized websites do not prominently display any information about their international operations.” Singh & Boughton 2002. It is suggested that online standardization lea
29、ds to cost savings see e.g. Kambil 1995; Sinkovics and Penz 2005. Website adaptation is potentially a costly undertaking. Incorporating culturally responsive features in a website necessitates the employment of culturally experienced staff and expert linguists not only to undertake the initial desig
30、n and launch of country specific websites but also to provide continuous analysis and interpretation of cues and generate insights from online dialogue and interaction with customers residing in culturally diverse environments. If, as Tsikriktsis 2002 concludes, culture plays a “significantly less i
31、mportant role in Web site quality expectations compared with traditional service quality expectations” see Tsikriktsis 2002, then the payoff to cultural adaptation in web design and operation may not be that large. Forrester Research 2001 reinforce this view by observing that repeat visitation of we
32、bsites is predominantly determined by interactivity, trust, the right composition of quality content, ease of use, speed and frequency of updating, while cultural dimensions and appeals are of negligible importance. An additional argument for website standardization can be provided in terms of devel
33、oping scale and scope economies by pursuing global product and branding strategies. Yip and Dempster 2005 point out that higher levels of Internet-use is related to higher levels of firm performance, thus supporting scale- and scope efficiencies. The proponents of online standardization also claim t
34、hat it will strengthen the brand image of the company amongst its potential online customers. Furthermore it is the preferred strategy to push visitors through the conversion process from surfers to purchasers Berthon, Pitt, and Watson 1996. This is essentially due to cost consideration as cultural
35、online adaptation is relatively costly Dewan, Freimer, and Seidmann 1998 and as long as the target conversion rate is not very high it can be achieved by transmitting a standardized online presence.On the other hand, proponents of the adaptation strategy contend that standardization does not generat
36、e distinctiveness in web-communication, and hence cannot maximize market potentials in respective markets and thus risks losing competitive advantage.2.3. Adaptation on the internetAdapted websites exhibit specific time, date, zip code and number formats. These sites have country specific templates
37、reflected in the country-specific unique resource locators (URLs) such as, .de (Germany), .com (U.S), and .co.uk (United Kingdom). Furthermore, these country-specific sites feature visibly on the level of the parent company websites and pay detail attention to culture specificities, most notably lan
38、guage issues. Proponents of website adaptation believe that information technology competences and capabilities of companies such as operating websites or conducting business online can easily be replicated by competitors Evans and Wurster 1997; Yamin and Sinkovics 2006. Competitive advantages on th
39、e Internet are therefore not likely to remain sustainable e.g. Carr 2003; Riquelme 2002 and companies must seek differentiation advantages. Kotha 1998 suggests that uniform communication patterns may not be sufficient to maintain healthy profit margins and competitive advantage. Yip and Dempster 200
40、5 concur with Porter and suggest the establishment of a unique set of activities; they claim that companies in global industries must “carefully monitor how rivals are making use of the Internet, and lead or match rivals activities.” Yip and Dempster 2005.As Kotha et al. 2004 show, buyers online exp
41、erience is critical to website competitiveness. This induces the firm to create various relationship services. As conceived by Kotha et al. 2004 relationship services are a mechanism to create a bond with online customers and engender buyer trust Kotha, Rajgopal, and Venkatachalam 2004. Other author
42、s have similarly maintained that buyer trust is a critical underpinning of a positive online experience see e.g. Jarvenpaa, Tractinsky, and Vitale 2000. Although previous studies are mostly concerned with trust in an e-commerce context, without necessarily focusing on cross-border transactions, it i
43、s reasonable to assume that trust is at least as crucial in this context as it is in domestic e-commerce Oxley and Yeung 2001. In the cross-border context, the creation of relationship service implies adaptation or differentiation. Relationship services are provided as a part of making the website m
44、ore culturally sensitive and specific to the target market Lim et al. 2004; Lynch and Beck 2001; Singh, Zhao, and Hu 2003. Cultural adaptation does have the potential to improve the effectiveness of websites. Yamin and Sinkovics 2006 reason that website interactivity entails a degree of cultural ada
45、ptation and that such cultural adaptation is beneficial in terms of sustaining the buyer/seller dialogue. Others have suggested that whilst ICT-enabled standardization may improve coordination and control for MNEs Yamin and Forsgren 2006, a level of subsidiary autonomy and initiative taking is still
46、 beneficial for MNEs Yamin and Sinkovics 2007, as might be induced by adaptation of local websites. Looking at the profiles of Internet buyers in 20 countries, it has been suggested that “even with increased electronic interactions, people still need to feel engaged (culturally or contextually) with
47、 vendors, even online. Consequently, companies that have an understanding of and an ability to mirror the culture of their target country will have a competitive global advantage.” Lynch and Beck 2001. Samiees 1998 suggestion that culture can have a main impact on the success of e-marketing efforts
48、appears to be valid in the online contexts, too.In a more empirical vein, a number of studies show that culture does influence the design of websites Cyr and Trevor-Smith 2004; Fink and Laupase 2000; Lynch, Kent, and Srinivasan 2001; Marcus and Gould 2000; Yip 2000; Zahir, Dobing, and Hunter 2002. E
49、mpirical evidence is further provided by Luna et al. 2002, who show that exposure to culturally appropriate websites, reduces the cognitive efforts required from the customer. The enhanced quality and frequency of online contact is likely to result in conversion efficiency. Chakraborty et al. 2005 provide empirical evidence
