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1、违反合作原则产生的修辞格Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Cooperative PrincipleThesis statement: Violation of the Cooperative Principle, namely, the maxims of quantity, of quality, of manner, and of relation, can create many figures of speech in prose and in our daily conversations.Outline:1. Introd
2、uction2. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of Quantity2.1 Tautology 2.2 Simile3. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of Quality3.1 Irony3.2 Metaphor3.3 Meiosis3.4 Hyperbole3.5 Oxymoron3.6 Paradox4. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of Manner.4.1 Fi
3、gures of Speech Created by Violation of the First Maxim of Manner4.1.1 Metonymy4.1.2 Synecdoche4.1.3 Euphemism4.2 Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Second Maxim of Manner4.2.1 Ambiguity4.2.2 Pun4.3 Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Third Maxim of Manner4.3.1 Pleonasm4.3.2 Cir
4、cumlocution4.4 Hysteron-proteron Created by Violation of the Fourth Maxim of Manner5. A Figure of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of Relation6. Conclusion:Abstract: The Cooperative Principle, an important theory in pragmatics, is put forward by the Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. It
5、can be applied to explaining many phenomena concerning the language use. One of the most interesting application lies in its explanation of the creation of many figures of speech. This paper tries to discuss the figures of speech produced by violation of the four maxims of the cooperative principle,
6、 namely, the maxim of quantity, of quality, of manner, and of relation. Key words: cooperative principle; figure of speech; violation摘要：合作原则由牛津大学H.P.格赖斯教授提出，是应用语言学领域至关重要的理论。它可以用来解释许多关于语言使用方面的现象。其中最有趣的莫过于它在解释修辞格方面的应用。本文试图阐释违反合作原则中四条准则产生的各种修辞格。关键词：合作原则; 修辞效果; 违反1. Introduction Herbert Paul Grice, thou
7、gh a philosopher at Oxford, has made a great contribution to linguistics; specifically, to pragmatics. In 1967, he surprised the philologists around the world by advancing his Cooperative Principle. Later on, his theory was accepted gradually and the research in this aspect continues on. The study,
8、however, has not yet been applied to rhetoric, also an old subject studying the language in use. Hu Fanzhu (Internet) states in his paper as well that even though both rhetoric and pragmatics focus on the study of the language in use, they have long been separated from each other. Actually, only by
9、employing the Cooperative Principle can we, to some extent, realize the integration of the two. The violation of the Cooperative Principle, namely, the maxim of quantity, of quality, of manner, and of relation, can create many figures of speech in prose and in our daily conversations.The Cooperative
10、 Principle was proposed at the William James lectures given by H.P. Grice at Harvard in 1967. And not until eight years later was part of it published under the title of “Logic and Conversation”. In the book, Grice expounded his Cooperative Principle in great detail. He believed that “ there is some
11、 regularity in conversation”（Hu Zhuanglin& Jiang Wangqi，2001：253）. That is to say, when we carrying on our conversation, we tend to follow the principle: “ Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exc
12、hange on which you are engaged”(qtd. in Liu Runqing, et al: 517). This principle is the Cooperative Principle. Specifically, it includes 4 maxims，i.e., the maxim of quantity, of quality, of manner, and of relation. In daily communication, however, people do not strictly follow these maxims. They may
13、 consciously violate the Cooperative Principle, and by doing so, some rhetorical effect can be achieved. Especially, some figures of speech are the results produced by violation of the maxims of the Cooperative Principle.2. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of QuantityGrice expound
14、s his maxim of quantity as follows: The category of QUANTITY relates to the quantity of information to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims:1.Make your contribution as informative as is required ( for the current purposes of the exchange).2.Do not make your contribution more informati
15、ve than is required. (qtd. in Liu Runqing, et al ：517)Violation of the two sub-maxims will produce the following figures of speech:2.1 Tautology Created by Violation of the First Maxim of QuantityLet us first consider a sentence:(1) Facts are facts.No new information is passed from the speaker to th
16、e listener by this sentence, since there is only one content word. According to Grice, this sentence violates the first maxim of quantity. Actually, at the same time, a figure of speech is created. It is tautology. It is defined in A Dictionary of Western Stylistics (Hu Zhuanglin& Liu Shisheng, 2004
17、:319) as an abnormal phenomenon in rhetoric. To be more specific, the argument or proposition of a sentence is repeated by the same word or word with similar meaning. Here is another example:(2) Women are women.In this sentence, two words out of three are the same: “women”. Superficially, no new inf
18、ormation is provided. Yet, reading more carefully, we understand what the writer intends to say is that women have some features belonging exclusively to them. Instead of saying this directly, the speaker consciously violates the first maxim of quantity for the effect of humor and emphasis.2.2 Simil
19、e Created by Violation of the Second Maxim of Quantity According to Grices second maxim of quantity, our speech to the interlocutor should be no more than what is required by the listener. Nevertheless, simile tells more than the listeners requirement. It provides additional information about one el
20、ement by employing a phrase with “as” or “like” plus another unlike element having at least one quality or characteristic in common with the former element. Look at the following sentence:(3) And then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel and shining morning face, creeping like snail unwillingly t
21、o school( W. Shakespeare: As You Like It)Instead of saying that the boy walks slowly, which is the fact needed by the reader, Shakespeare portrays it as “creeping like snail”. This is the additional information that makes example (3) against the second maxim of quantity, and meanwhile, results in th
22、e creation of simile. But in this way, he describes the image more vividly.3. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of QualityAs is the same with the maxim of quantity, Grice explains his maxim of quality also in two aspects:Under the category of QUALITY falls a supermaxim Try to make
23、your contribution one that is trueand two more specific maxims:1.Do not say what you believe to be false.2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(qtd. in Liu Runqing, et al：517) The figures of speech concerning violation of the second maxim of quality are not easy to find. The discuss
24、ion concentrates on those created by violation of the first maxim of quality. In his book Modern Pragmatics (2003), Jiang Wangqi says that all the examples Grice used to illustrate violation of the first maxim of quality are the traditional figures of speech. And in “Logic and Conversation”, Grice h
25、imself gives some examples of irony, metaphor, meiosis, and hyperbole. After my own research, I believe that oxymoron and paradox are cause by violation of this maxim as well.3.1 Irony “Irony is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning o
26、f the words being the opposite of their usual sense.”(Feng Cuihua，2005：228) Thus, it is given rise to by violation of the first maxim of quality. Grice illustrates this point in his “Logic and Conversation” by the following example: (4) X, with whom A has been on close terms until now, has betrayed
27、a secret of As to a business rival, A and his audience both know this. A says, “X is a fine friend ”.()（Jiang Wangqi，2000：48） Lets see another passage which proves this point even more forcefully: (5) It is a very justifiable cause of war to invade a country after the people have been wasted by fami
28、ne, destroyed by pestilence, or embroiled by factious among themselves. It is justifiable to enter into war against our nearest ally, when one of his towns lies convenient for us, or a territory of land, that would render our dominions round and complete. If a prince sends forces into a nation where
29、 the people are poor and ignorant, he may lawfully put half of them to death, and make slaves of the rest, in order to civilize and reduce them from their barbarous way of living.(Jonathan Swift: Travels) With full attention, we can feel the tone of irony throughout the whole passage. What is said t
30、o be “justifiable” and “lawful” is actually “unjustifiable” and “unlawful”. In this way, even though he does not state fact, Swift strongly satirizes the war.3.2 Metaphor Metaphor, like simile, also makes comparison between two unlike elements; but this comparison is not stated but implied. Speaking
31、 from the pragmatic point of view, metaphor is created by violation of the first maxim of quality. Lets read two sentences here:(6) You are the cream in my coffee.(7) All the worlds a stage,(W. Shakespeare: As You Like It)Example (6) is the most clever expression in talking about ones importance to
32、someone else. But, Grice argues that it “characteristically involve(s) categorical falsity”, regarding two things of different nature as the same. It goes without saying that “you” is a highly intelligent creature, while “cream” is just a kind of liquid. As for (7), it is also brought about by the v
33、iolation of this maxim because Shakespeare obviously committed a categorical falsity by rendering “the world” as “a stage” which are of course not the same thing at all.3.3 Meiosis Meiosis, also named litotes, achieves its effect of emphasis by “a discounting way of saying”. For instance: (8) “ Well
34、 Lets go home and talk about it. Well figure out something. I can send you to the employment office I went to and ”“I cant type. I got no college degree. I cant do anything and besides, I wanna be in the show!” Neely started to sob violently again.“Please, Neely,” Anne begged. She knew Miss Steinber
35、g and the girls were staring, but her worst fear materialized when Lyon Burke opened his door. She smiled at him weakly as he came over and stared at the shrieking Neely.“This is Neely. Shes a little upset.”“Id say that was a classic understatement.”(Susanna: Valley of the Dolls)From the above narra
36、tion, we know that Neely is extremely upset. When Lyon Burke appeared, however, Anne “discounts” the degree of Neelys unhappiness and said she is only “a little upset”. This betrays the fact apparently. Therefore, we say meiosis is the result of the violation of the first maxim of quality. And by th
37、is way, Annes character is fully displayed.3.4 Hyperbole “Hyperbole is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis”.(Feng Cuihua，2005：212). It is produced by violation of the first maxim of quality for the simple reason that the sentence containing it does not state a fac
38、t, but an exaggeration of the fact. (9) For she was beautiful her beauty made The bright world dim, and everything beside Seemed like the fleeting image of a shade.(P.B. Shelley: The Witch of Atlas) No matter how beautiful one is, the beauty cannot make “the bright world dim”. The poet obviously ove
39、rstates the power of “her” beauty for emphasis.3.5 Oxymoron Oxymoron, originated from Greek, is formed “by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms.”(ibid.：209) Lets look at two classical examples: (10) I have a jolly wo, a lusty sorrow.”(Chaucer: Troilus and Criseydy.)(
40、11) Why, then, O brawling love, O loving hate, O any thing! Of nothing first create, O heavy lightness! Serious vanity!Mis-shapen chao of well-seeming forms!Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!(W. Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet) “Wo” in example (10) is by definition something bitter
41、 and hard, which cannot be “jolly” at all; similarly, “sorrow” is something sad and melancholy, which cannot be “lusty”. This effect of emphasis, intended by the authors deliberate arrangement of these contrasting noun phrases, is achieved by the clear deviation from the fact. Oxymoron runs througho
42、ut the whole of example (11). Nearly every content word forms an oxymoron with the one following it. This makes Shakespeare go against the first maxim of quality. Yet, Romeos conflicted feeling is shown much more lively.3.6 Paradox Paradox is and expanded version of oxymoron. That is to say, it form
43、s contradictory idea in one sentence, not in two successive words. For instance, “War is peace, Freedom is slavery.” This figure of speech exists as the by-product of the violation of the first maxim of quality. Donne writes in his Holly Sonnet 14 as: (12) For I Except you enthrall me, never shall b
44、e free, Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me. Based on our common sense we know, if one is “enthralled”, he would never be “free”; if one is “ravished”, he would never be “chaste”. Of course, Donne is not so foolish as to refer to someone “enthralled” as “free”, someone “ravished” as “chaste”. He d
45、eliberately says something he believes, and everybody believes, to be untrue to call the readers attention and to emphasize his love toward God.4. Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the Maxim of Manner. Grice put his maxim of manner in this way: Finally, under the category of MANNER, which I
46、understand as relating not (like the previous categories) to what is said but, rather, to HOW what is to be said, I include the supermaximBe perspicuous and various maxims such as:1.Avoid obscurity of expression.2.Avoid ambiguity.3.Be brief.( avoid unnecessary prolixity)4.Be orderly.(qtd. in Liu Run
47、qing, et al: 518) Figures of speech can be found concerning the first three sub-maxims. Nonetheless, “ Grice did not give any example of disorder, which is understandable in that generally a disordered utterance will not convey anything but the fact that the speaker is mentally unsound”.(Hu Zhuangli
48、n& Jiang Wangqi，2001：258) However, in rhetoric, this is not absolutely true. We can still find some examples.4.1 Figures of Speech Created by Violation of the First Maxim of Manner 4.1.1 Metonymy The first maxim of manner, avoiding obscurity of expression, provides that everything should be stated explicitly. For instance, when we want to refer to the ice-cream, we should simply pronounce “ice-cream”, not “ICECREAM”. But, metonymy is realized just
