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1、PROGRESSION IN UNDERSTANDING OF BRITISH STUDENTS OF CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT IN HISTORY英國學生對歷史中變遷與發展之理解進程,FRANCES BLOW,1.OVERVIEW TO THE PRESENTATION 報告概述,Why do the ways in which students understand history matter?Issues from the British experience.為什麼學生理解歷史的方式要緊？來出英國經驗的課題。How might the different way
2、s in which students think about change and development in history be described?學生思考歷史中變遷與發展的不同方式可以如何被描述？What are some of the implications for teaching change and development in history lessons?對於歷史中變遷與發展的教學課程有何啟示？Concluding thoughts 結論想法,1.1Why does historical understanding of students matter?學生的歷史理
3、解為何要緊？,Educators aims:to enable students 教育者的目標：使學生有能力To be responsible decision makers and citizens of a global community 成為全球社群中的負責任的決策者與公民To understand the ways in which the past is connected to and shapes the present and constrains our options in the future 瞭解過去連結並且形塑現在以及侷限我們未來選項的方式,1.2 Why is a
4、n understanding of change and development important?理解變遷與發展為什麼重要？,History is about how and why things happened in human affairs in the past.Therefore history is about time.歷史是關於過去人事中事物如何與為何發生，因此歷史乃是關於時間。Change is the means by which we register what happens over time.變遷是我們賴以註明歷時以來發生何事的憑藉。What we iden
5、tify as a change depends partly on the question asked and partly on the timescale of the topic studied.我們認定什麼是變遷部分取決於所問問題、部分取決於所研究主題的時間規模。,1.3 opportunities offered by a long timescale of study長時段研究所提供的機會,Studying a long timescale,of centuries,enables us:研究數世紀的長時段使我們能夠：to see the deep structures and
6、 forces that shape human societies over time,what Ferdinand Braudel called the long dure and which are invisible if we study only the“froth”of“little”stories about the past;看到長時間形塑人類社會的深層結構與力量（布勞岱爾所謂長時段），如果我們只是研究關於過去小故事之泡沫將無所見者。to evaluate with students aspects of change that might not otherwise be
7、apparent.與學生一起評估那些若非常時段中可能不明顯的面向。,1.4 British students views about Change 英國學生關於變遷的觀點,Students know about change from personal experience and daily life.學生從個人經驗與日常生活中知道關於變遷。They see change as integral to historical narratives;it implies before and after a significant happening;it supports ideas of s
8、equence.他們視變遷為歷史敘事的內含部分；它隱含之前與之後是有意義的發生；它支持序列的理念。But they often have no conceptual understanding that change is a process of complex connections and interactions that make the past coherent;但是學生常常對於變遷乃是一使得過去具一致性之複雜連結與互動的過程缺乏概念性理解。That changes should be evaluated;變遷應當被評估；That progress is not inevitab
9、le.進步不是必然的。,1.5 WHY ARE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT HARD CONCEPTS FOR BRITISH STUDENTS?為什麼變遷與發展對英國學生來說是困難的概念？,History is taught as a series of unconnected episodes,drawn from different times and placese.g.Ancient Egypt;English Middle Ages 1066-1485;French Revolution 1789-1815;Slavery in America 18th-19th
10、 centuries;World War II.History for them is a collection of fragments and little stories.歷史被教成一連串來自不同時空之無關連插曲（像是古代埃及；英格蘭中古時期1066-1485；法國大革命1789-1815；十八十九世紀美國奴隸制度；二戰）這些的歷史是一些碎片與小故事的集成。Chronological knowledge is often mistaken by teachers for temporal awareness.Students know dates but do not understan
11、d how things that happen within a given timeframe causally relate to each other;that dates have potential causal significance for explaining change.編年知識常被教師誤解為時間意識。學生知道年代日期，但是不瞭解發生在同一時間架構事物如何因果性地連結起來；不瞭解日期具有解釋變遷的潛在因果意義。Students model of causation is based on personal experience;they think that somet
12、hing happens because somebody wanted and decided that it should happen.Causal agents for long term changes that are invisible unless viewed with hindsight,are outside their direct experience.學生的因果模型奠基於個人經驗；他們以為某事發生是因為某人想要或決定它該發生。長時段變遷的成因主體非事後聰明來看否則是不可見的，這點對學生來說是超乎他們的直接經驗。Cognitive overload is often
13、a problem.Teachers often confuse quantity with quality and tell lots of information to increase complexity.This makes it harder for students to see patterns and connections,and they tend to simplify by reducing data to single lines of development instead of weaving complex and multi stranded explana
14、tions.認知超載經常是個問題。教師常混淆質與量而說出大量資訊想要增加複雜度。這使得學生更難看出模式與關連，他們傾向於將資料化約成單一發展線索來化約、而不是編織複雜多束的解釋。,2.In what ways do students understand change and development?學生以何種方式瞭解變遷與發展？,Our knowledge comes from Curriculum Project data and current research 我們的知識來自於課程計畫資料與目前研究:Students have differing levels of comprehen
15、sion.學生有不同層次的領悟。Their ideas about change relate to how students see connections within the past,and between the past,present and future.他們關於變遷的理念相關於學生如何看待過去之內的連結，以及過去現在與未來之間的連結。Model of progressive levels of complexity which could inform teaching and assessment of conceptual understanding is possibl
16、e.能夠幫助形成概念理解之教學評量的複雜度進程模型是有可能的。Levels are not age-related;they describe developmental stages of thinking that can be found in students of any age.層次無關乎年紀；他們是描述可在任何年齡學生身上找到的思維發展階段。,2.1 Model of progression:LEVEL 1:Change is when something happens 進程模型：第一層：變遷即某事發生時,Change is equated with an event.變遷等同
17、於事件。Change just happens,for no particular reason.變遷發生無特殊理由。The past is when we are not in the present;it is not-now.過去即我們不在當下；它是非現在。Most of the time in the past,nothing happens;if something does happen,it is a change.過去的大多數時間中無事發生；如果真有事發生，那就是變遷。Changes are not connected in any way.變遷與變遷毫無關連。There is
18、 no internal organisation or coherence in the past.過去之中無內在組織亦無一貫性。,2.1.1 EXAMPLE:LEVEL 1實例：第一層,Interviewer:“When did change happen in the past?”過去之中變遷何時發生？Mary:“There was change when something happened,like a battle.”某事發生時，像是戰役。Interviewer:”How would a battle make a change?”一場戰役如何造成變遷？Mary:“Because
19、something happened.If nothing happened,there wouldnt be change.”因為某事發生了。如果無事發生，不會有變遷。,2.2 LEVEL 2:Change is when something is different 第二層：變遷即某事不一樣了,Change is a description of a difference between two points of time,-either within the past,or between the past and present.變遷是描述兩個時間點之間的差異 或者在過去之中，或者在
20、現在與過去之間The past is a temporal zone separated from the present.過去是一個與現在分離的時區。Temporal connections as sequences of events exist in the past as little stories with their own dates.作為事件序列的時間聯繫在過去作為有日期之小故事而存在。Temporal connections are the only connections;there is no understanding of the concept of develo
21、pment.時間聯繫是唯一的聯繫；無發展概念的理解。Development is construed as an increase in size or scale;something is added;something gets bigger.發展被理解成尺寸或規模的增長；某物被添加；某物變大了。Change is the opposite of no-change;it is the opposite of continuity.If something had not happened in the past,we would still today be living as they
22、 did in the past.Change is comprehensive and universal.Either everything changes or everything stays the same.變遷是無變遷的反面；是連續性的反面。如果某事未發生於過去，我們今天還是會像他們有發生一樣地活著。變遷是通貫並且普世性的。不是所有事都變遷就是所有事都不變。,2.2.1 EXAMPLE LEVEL 2 實例第二層,Interviewer:“When did change happen in the past?”變遷在過去何時發生？Tom:“Well,after the Norma
23、n Conquest there was a different ruler of England.”嗯，在諾曼人登陸之後英格蘭統治者不一樣了。Interviewer:“How did that change things?”那改變了什麼事呢？Tom:“Well,everything would just be different because you had a different ruler,different laws and taxes from when the Anglo-Saxons ruled.”嗯，每件事都不一樣了，因為自從盎格魯薩克遜人統治，你就有了不同的統治者、法律和稅
24、。,2.3 LEVEL 3:Change is a generalisation about significant differences 變遷即關於顯著差異之通則化,Students can distinguish between differences and designate some as significant.Some alterations in historye.g.in fashion are not automatically significant nor stable.學生能夠區別差異並且指予某些差異為顯著的。歷史中有些調整（像是流行）既非自然而然就顯著亦非自然而然
25、就穩定。Differences can be evaluated for their impact at the time and over time.差異可以就其當時暨長時期影響被評估。Students can make generalisations-which are essential for making historical accounts and explanations of the past.A generalisation is a statement about a relationship or connection between two or more varia
26、bles.Defining something as a change means recognising that it is a difference which is stable and linked to an important consequence.學生能發揮通則 這對歷史記述和解釋是不可或缺的。（通則乃是對兩個或以上變數中間關係或連結的陳述。）將某事界定為變遷意味著認定它是一個穩定並且連結到另一個重要後果的差異。The relationship between the past and present is now meaningful;the present has cha
27、nged from the past.過去與現在 之間的關係此時具有意義；現在是由過去變遷而來Change and continuity can co-exist;legacies or unchanged thingslast from the past to the present.。變遷與延續可以並存；遺產（或者不變的事物）自過去持續到現在。,2.3.1 EXAMPLE:LEVEL 3 實例：第三層,Interviewer:“When did change happen in the past?”過去之中變遷何時發生？Jessica:“Well,there were several ma
28、jor changes after the Norman Conquest.For one thing,the ruling classes spoke in French,and new types of castles were introduced and the king no longer consulted his barons before making a decision.”嗯，諾曼人登陸之後有好幾個重大變遷。舉一件來說，統治階層說法文，新型態的城堡引進，國王決定事情前不在諮詢他的侯爵們。,2.4 Level 4:Change looks different over dif
29、ferent timescales 不同時間規模下變遷樣貌不同,The time spans under review affect types of change identified:討論時段長短不同影響辨識出的變遷型態:Transformation:when the appearance of something changes over time but there is continuity of core principle within the changed outward form.轉變：當某事物外貌隨時間變化，但是改變的外在形式骨子裡仍有核心原則的延續性。Trend:suc
30、cession of changes in a particular direction;e.g.A curve on a graph.趨勢：變遷朝特定方向接連發生；像是圖表中的曲線。Turning point:shift in direction;an alteration in rate or direction of change 轉捩點：方向轉換；比率或變遷方向的調整。Dead end:a change starts and then is stopped 困境：變遷開始之後停止。False dawn:a change was planned,but does not material
31、ise 假曙：計畫的變遷但並未實現。Long time spans are essential for identification and evaluation of these types 辨識並且評估這些型態必須就長時段考量,2.4.1 EXAMPLE:LEVEL 4 實例：第四層,Interviewer:“You said the Industrial Revolution was a time of change,Alan.Can you explain that to me please?”你說工業革命是一個變遷的時代，Alan，請你解釋給我聽，可以嗎？Alan:“The Indu
32、strial Revolution was important because it increased the pace of change and it was a turning point because it was the first time in history when men could get fire to do the work of a horse.And man was not limited by wind and water for his power.The energy from fire and fossil fuels was a vast incre
33、ase in power and a great leap forward.”工業革命重要是因為它加速變遷，是轉捩點因為史上第一次人能用火代替馬力。人的能源不再受限於風力和水力。火力和化石燃料能源動力大量增進，是一個大躍進。,2.5 LEVEL 5:Development is when changes are linked 發展即諸變遷聯繫時,Recognition that change is a process and a series of changes can be connected;肯認變遷乃是一過程、一系列可被聯繫起來的變遷That a line of development
34、 describes and explains a series of interconnected changes;一條發展線索描述並且解釋一系列相互連結的變遷A series of linked changes has a direction that is meaningful;一系列連結的變遷具被一個有意義的方向Multiple lines of development within the same or overlapping time frames are possible,but they do not interact;在同一或重疊的時間架構中的多線發展是可能的，但是他們並不
35、互動。Lines of development have produced the present;the present that we know was inevitable.諸發展線索生產出了現在；如我們所知的現在是必然的。,2.5.1 EXAMPLE:LEVEL 5 實例：第五層,Interviewer:“In what ways was the Industrial Revolution a revolution,Jenny?”Jenny,工業革命何以稱得上革命？Jenny:“Well,it was really not one but a whole series of revol
36、utions and one led to another.If we hadnt had the steam engine,no one would have invented the internal combustion engine which led to the car and the aeroplane,and jet engines today.”嗯，其實那不是單一而是一整個系列、一個接著一個的革命。如果沒有蒸氣機，就不會有人發明內燃機、以及接之而來的汽車、飛機和今日噴射引擎。,2.6 LEVEL 6:Change generates possibilities 第六層：變遷產
37、生可能性,Lines of development interact to create sets of conditions particular to time and place 諸發展線索互動創造出特定時空的多組條件A change in any single line will impact on other lines and on outcomes of interactions between them 單一線索中的變遷將影響其他線索以及諸線索之間互動的後果。The current present is no longer seen as the inevitable resu
38、lt of the past;alternative present(s)were possible 現在的當下不再被視為過去不可避免的結果；另類的現在（或諸種現在）是可能的。Lines of development provide trajectories into possible futures;past,present and future are connected,but not predetermined.發展線索提供了進入諸多可能未來的軌跡；過去現在與未來是連結的，但不是預先決定的。,2.6.1 EXAMPLE:LEVEL 6 實例：第六層,Interviewer:“In wh
39、at ways was the Industrial Revolution a revolution,Martin?”Martin,工業革命何以稱得上革命？Martin:“Well,it changed so much-transport,steam engines,factories-and it made the great European empires possible,and the growth in population.If we had not had the Industrial revolution,so much modern technology-engineeri
40、ng and scientific developments-would not have happened and our present world would be so different.”嗯，它改變了許多事 運輸、蒸氣機、工廠 並使得偉大的歐洲帝國成為可能，人口成長。若無工業革命，許多現代技術 工程學和科學發展都不會發生，我們的現在將大大不同。,3.Implications for teaching change and development 教授變遷與發展的涵義,Data are drawn from British experience and may not be rele
41、vant at all for Taiwan由英國經驗取得的資料，不過可能與台灣完全不相關In Britain,there is official recognition of the problems in historical understanding arising from a fragmented curriculum 在英國，公認有一個出自於零碎學程造成的歷史理解問題No radical action has yet been proposed by government,but research activity has produced the following ideas
42、.政府尚未提出根本的行動，但是研究活動以經生產出下列理念。,3.1 STRATEGIES FOR HELPING STUDENTS UNDERSTAND CHANGE 幫助學生理解變遷的策略,Provide a structure against which students can register and monitor changes over time 提供一個結構，學生可以據之以登記並監控歷時變遷Recursive teaching in which students understanding is expanded by revisiting previous material-
43、rather than by adding lots of new data.重複教學，透過重訪之前的材料，而不是加入大量新資料來擴大學生的理解Provide a synoptic overview at the end of the unit of work 在單元結尾時提供題綱式概述Teach students about generalisations and how to form them 教導學生關於通則化以及如何形成通則,3.2 A STRUCTURE OR HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK 一個結構或歷史的架構,An historical framework with
44、一個歷史性的架構具有:Key questions and themes to provide a scaffolding 提供鷹架的關鍵問題與主題;A long time span;the longer the better to serve as a context for any topic;長時段；越常越好，可作為任何課題的脈絡；An overview,taught as a whole,fast,in a single lesson,at the beginning of a unit of work;題綱，整全地教授，迅速，一堂課裡，單元開始時；can help students i
45、dentify and evaluate change 如上架構可以幫助學生辨識和評估變遷,3.3 RECURSIVE TEACHING 重複教學,Revisiting the same story and sources provides opportunities to:重訪相同故事與史料以便提供機會去：Consolidate and expand students understanding of existing knowledge 穩固並擴展學生現有知識的理解Identify patterns of change 辨識出變遷模式Focus learning on the constr
46、uction of lines of development 將學習聚焦於建構諸發展線索Growth in understanding without growth in volume of information to be coordinated at any one time by students 理解成長但學生一次必須整合的資訊數量沒有增加,3.4 SYNOPTIC OVERVIEW 題綱概述,A synoptic overview should be taught at the end of the unit of work in order to:題綱概述要在每個單元結尾時做以便
47、Support comparisons and contrasts across themes and time 支持跨主題與時間的比較與對照Analyse how the interactions between lines of development create causal chains 分析諸多發展線索之間的互動如何創造出因果鏈結Discuss possible impact of such causal chains on the past,present,and future 討論這樣的因果鏈結對過去、現在與未來可能造成的影響,3.5 TEACHING ABOUT GENERA
48、LISATIONS怎麼教通則化,Students need to know what a generalisation is and how to form them.It can be helpful If there is:學生需要知道什麼是通則化以及如何做Training in the selection of key information for constructing summaries of a series of events or a development,in a phrase or a sentence 訓練選擇關鍵資訊以便建構一系列事件或一項發展的簡要說明，用一個詞
49、組或者一句話Evaluation by teachers and students of the quality of summaries:their usefulness;accuracy;relevance to the question asked.由老師與學生評價簡要說明的品質：他們的用處、正確性、和切題性。,4.Conclusion 結論,The concepts of change and development are central to an understanding of how the past is connected to the present and futur
50、e.變遷與發展概念對於理解過去如何連接到現在與未來具有核心重要性。Students can learn quickly how to use words like change and development without understanding the actual concepts.學生能夠迅速學會用像是變遷發展這些語彙卻不瞭解這些概念The concepts are difficult and complex.They need to be taught explicitly,within and outside of historical content.這些概念是困難複雜的。他
