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1、全生命周期成本中的产品成本设计思路分析摘要:设计阶段的成本决定了大部分产品全生命周期成本,基于此,本文在分析产品成本设计的基础上,具体阐述了产品成本设计的步骤及各步骤产品成本设计的主要工作。关键词:产品成本设计 目标成本 全生命周期成本 一、引言为保证核心竞争力,企业在保证产品质量、差异化与重点化同时,必需降低成本。成本成为决定产品竞争力的重要因素。传统的成本会计与管理控制侧重于制造过程,然而,产品成本的很大程度上是在产品设计阶段决定的1。如图1所示,设计阶段决定了整个产品生命周期成本的70%以上,但所需现金流出仅占5%左右,事实上,一旦产品设计完成,成本在以后阶段降低的空间相当有限。因此,应
2、将产品成本管理的重点放在产品设计阶段,并将成本管理从制造阶段扩展到整个产品生命周期,实现全生命周期成本管理。而产品成本设计PCD (Product Cost Design)正是一种在设计阶段进行成本管理的方法体系。 二、产品成本设计内涵与过程产品成本设计源于于20世纪60年代日本丰田汽车公司的目标成本管理,是在“面向成本的产品设计(DFC)”和“按费用设计(DTC)”等方法的基础上发展起来的一种新体系,属于产品设计与企业管理两个领域的交叉部分,是当前多种技术发展后的结果,不仅包括设计方法学、企业管理学,还包括计算机科学、优化方法学、控制理论等10。产品成本设计PCD (Product Cost
3、 Design),是面向产品设计全过程的根据产品设计信息对产品的目标成本进行估算建模、优化控制和分析决策的智能方法、技术和系统。其目的旨在配合功能, 引导和优化产品开发设计。产品成本设计过程如图2所示 上述过程图可见,成本设计的关键是与动态市场相适应的目标成本的确定和竞争性成本压力的分解传递。目标成本与开发设计过程的直接关联性决定了它在产品成本目标系统中的典型代表性。科学预测、推算、评价、优化产品设计目标成本, 不仅对未来产品价格、企业利润产生决定性影响, 而且对开发费用预算、使用成本的控制具有类推借鉴意义。 产品设计的每个阶段相应都有目标成本“确定估算评价反馈”的过程,每一次循环都是对成本的
4、一次修正。在整个修正循环中各阶段的功能有所不同。下文结合各个设计阶段对产品成本设计的关键点进行阐述 三、概念设计阶段产品成本设计3.1 采用协同设计确定目标成本产品级目标成本确定基本公式如下2: 式中: Kziel 目标成本;P 用户可接受的市场价格;G 计划利润;I 各种税金;T 营销费用;KV 可变计件成本(计划) ;KPPE 开发规划费用(计划) ;Kftx 产品寿命周期承担的固定费用份额(计划) ;m 产品数量。等式第一项反映市场对目标成本的影响, 而第二项则指出了设计过程中为达到目标成本应控制的因素。从公式中可知,目标成本确定时, 既要考虑竞争对象的价格水平,还要考虑用户的经济能力。
5、因此产品级目标成本的确定不是某一个部门的事,而涉及到企业甚至整个供应链的全过程各个环节。如图3所示,采用基于互联网的协同设计环境可在概念设计阶段改变了原有的线性设计流程,以并行工程的方式进行产品设计,各种功能小组互相作用与反馈重叠,目标成本方法在这种集成式设计中起了重要作用。 3.2 利用价值工程评价与修正目标成本价值工程提供了一种系统性的方法评价设计与生产中可选方。企业中普遍运用价值工程的类型是功能分析,即对产品的每一主要功能或特征的效用和成本进行考察。这种分析的目的是确定效用与成本间的平衡。在复杂的产品设计中,所有组件累加形成最终产品的成本与价值。价值工程需要协同功能组去分析每种产品功能相
6、关联的价值。这对每种功能价值的成本比率确定至关重要。价值工程由分析与确立两个步骤引导。在分析步骤中,决策与制造专家组调查产品功能价值与评价价值。在研究产品功能特点及成本、价值的基础上确定产品的价值系数:Vi = Fi/Ci 其中Fi =1,Ci =1Fi:第i项功能的功能评价系数Ci第i项功能的成本系数在确立阶段,使用分析阶段的结果以寻求创造性的方法以降低不需用的功能或特征,以降低成本或进行改善以提高客户价值。一般而言,Vi越接近1越好;若Vi大于1,说明功能重要,但所选材料材质不好或加工精度不够,要考虑成本是否低估;若Vi小于1说明这些零部件加工精度过高或材料太好,存在大材小用现象,应降低精
7、度或采用更廉价的材料,是成本降低的重点;若Vi接近于零,就应考虑该功能有无存在的必要,其功能能否被替代。总之,通过概念设计阶段的不断调整产品功能与成本之间的平衡,通过价值工程方法进行功能/成本权衡分析,寻找成本降低点。最终确定产品层合理的目标成本。四、详细设计阶段产品成本设计产品级目标成本确定后,在设计部门可根据概念设计的确定的方案进行产品详细设计的同时,财务部门需将产品层的目标成本进行分解,建立子件目标成本。这也是一个协同工作的过程,财务部需应用到设计部门提供的BOM、工艺路线、工作时间的信息,采用作业成本法,才能科学地进行目标成本分解。如图4所示 具体来说,从以下几方面入手:4.1 物料清
8、单(BOM/Bill of Material)BOM是完整的、正式的、结构化的组成一个产品的部件清单。该清单包含每个部件的物料编号、数量和计量单位。物料清单是MRP的基础,也是自动生产材料成本的关键数据来源,并决定了计算顺序。物料清单可能包括半成品,而半成品本身也有物料清单,这样构成了多层物料清单。计算机系统首先计算出最低层次物料成本,随后逐步计算上层物料,这一过程称为成本上卷(Cost rollup)。通过成本上卷可以保存、分析每一生产层次的成本及阶值。BOM可由设计部门创建,财务、生产、储运部门共享,具有惟一的BOM编号及用途。4.2 工作中心(Work center)工作中心是一种抽象的
9、组织机构,可以灵活地定义为实际的工作中心(如一台机器、一条生产线、一个装配中心、一个生产班组、一个车间),工艺路线中每一个工序都必须在工作中心中完成。工作中心在产品目标成本分解中是计算人工成本和制造费用的基础,在工作中心定义了与产品成本相关的公式,如机器生产准备时间(setup)是批次的函数,生产机时或工时是批量的函数等。4.3 工艺路线(Routing)工艺路线描述了生产一种产品所需的每一道工序以及执行这些工序的先后顺序。除此之外。工艺路线中还包含了每一道工序在哪个工作中心中执行,需要哪些材料部件以及其他的一些计算生产期、产能、生产成本相关的技术信息。对每道工序,还需定义该工序的作业(Act
10、ivity)数量。4.4 成本中心成本中心是目标成本分解、归集与控制的组织机构,在能明确成本控制责任和方便成本核算原则下,工作中心与成本中心可是多对一关系或一对一关系。在成本中心,通过各种BOM中物料成本、工艺路线定义的作业与工作中心定义的公式,汇总即可得产品各层级的目标成本。 关于成本的估计方法,国内外学者做了大量研究,主要有:(1)德 G 帕尔、W 拜茨的几何相似系列产品成本估计3 : (2)德 Klasmeier 通用成本函数4 : (3)美Cawthorne ,Nugent 订货环境下基于知识的智能化成本估算函数9 。(4)英A R Mileham , G C Currie 方案设计阶
11、段参数化成本估算方法5 。(5)中国学者采用统计法建立的成本估计模型68 ,如组合化系列产品的成本增长规律, 功能参数和设计成本的关联分析, 零件尺寸公差与成本的关系等。 五、结束语产品成本设计在产品设计阶段贯穿了战略成本管理和价值工程理念,将目标成本管理融入到产品设计中,在建立产品数字化模型和参数化的产品配置中,建立不同阶段对应的产品级、装配级、零件级、特征级的成本信息模型,实现产品设计与成本控制(目标成本设定、分解、估算、达成)之间的协调同步和动态反馈机制。这种方法体系将财务管理的思想与工程设计中的成本工程知识结合为一体,从根本上降低了产品成本。Editors note: Judson J
12、ones is a meteorologist, journalist and photographer. He has freelanced with CNN for four years, covering severe weather from tornadoes to typhoons. Follow him on Twitter: jnjonesjr (CNN) - I will always wonder what it was like to huddle around a shortwave radio and through the crackling static from
13、 space hear the faint beeps of the worlds first satellite - Sputnik. I also missed watching Neil Armstrong step foot on the moon and the first space shuttle take off for the stars. Those events were way before my time.As a kid, I was fascinated with what goes on in the sky, and when NASA pulled the
14、plug on the shuttle program I was heartbroken. Yet the privatized space race has renewed my childhood dreams to reach for the stars.As a meteorologist, Ive still seen many important weather and space events, but right now, if you were sitting next to me, youd hear my foot tapping rapidly under my de
15、sk. Im anxious for the next one: a space capsule hanging from a crane in the New Mexico desert.Its like the set for a George Lucas movie floating to the edge of space.You and I will have the chance to watch a man take a leap into an unimaginable free fall from the edge of space - live.The (lack of)
16、air up there Watch man jump from 96,000 feet Tuesday, I sat at work glued to the live stream of the Red Bull Stratos Mission. I watched the balloons positioned at different altitudes in the sky to test the winds, knowing that if they would just line up in a vertical straight line we would be go for
17、launch.I feel this mission was created for me because I am also a journalist and a photographer, but above all I live for taking a leap of faith - the feeling of pushing the envelope into uncharted territory.The guy who is going to do this, Felix Baumgartner, must have that same feeling, at a level
18、I will never reach. However, it did not stop me from feeling his pain when a gust of swirling wind kicked up and twisted the partially filled balloon that would take him to the upper end of our atmosphere. As soon as the 40-acre balloon, with skin no thicker than a dry cleaning bag, scraped the grou
19、nd I knew it was over.How claustrophobia almost grounded supersonic skydiverWith each twist, you could see the wrinkles of disappointment on the face of the current record holder and capcom (capsule communications), Col. Joe Kittinger. He hung his head low in mission control as he told Baumgartner t
20、he disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunday.The weather plays an important role in this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon,
21、with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It will climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kil
22、ometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause), he can expect a lot of turbulence.The balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet (22.7 miles/36.53 kilometers). Here, Fearless Felix will unclip. He will roll back the door.Then, I would
23、 assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an Olympic diving platform.Below, the Earth becomes the concrete bottom of a swimming pool that he wants to land on, but not too hard. Still, hell be traveling fast, so despite the distance, it will not be like diving into the deep end of a
24、pool. It will be like he is diving into the shallow end.Skydiver preps for the big jumpWhen he jumps, he is expected to reach the speed of sound - 690 mph (1,110 kph) - in less than 40 seconds. Like hitting the top of the water, he will begin to slow as he approaches the more dense air closer to Ear
25、th. But this will not be enough to stop him completely.If he goes too fast or spins out of control, he has a stabilization parachute that can be deployed to slow him down. His team hopes its not needed. Instead, he plans to deploy his 270-square-foot (25-square-meter) main chute at an altitude of ar
26、ound 5,000 feet (1,524 meters).In order to deploy this chute successfully, he will have to slow to 172 mph (277 kph). He will have a reserve parachute that will open automatically if he loses consciousness at mach speeds.Even if everything goes as planned, it wont. Baumgartner still will free fall a
27、t a speed that would cause you and me to pass out, and no parachute is guaranteed to work higher than 25,000 feet (7,620 meters).It might not be the moon, but Kittinger free fell from 102,800 feet in 1960 - at the dawn of an infamous space race that captured the hearts of many. Baumgartner will attempt to break that record, a feat that boggles the mind. This is one of those monumental moments I will always remember, because there is no way Id miss this.