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1、English Grammar in English1 An Introduction to Word classes31.1 Criteria for Word Classes41.1.1 Meaning41.1.2 The form or shape of a word51.1.3 The position or environment of a word in a sentence61.2 Open and Closed Word Classes72 Nouns82.1 Characteristics of Nouns82.2 Common and Proper Nouns102.3 C
2、ount and Non-count Nouns102.4 Pronouns112.5 Other Types of Pronoun122.6 Numerals132.7 The Gender of Nouns143 Determiners163.1 Numerals and Determiners173.2 Pronouns and Determiners183.3 The Ordering of Determiners193.4 Predeterminers193.5 Central Determiners203.6 Postdeterminers204 Verbs214.1 The Ba
3、se Form214.2 Past and Present Forms224.3 The Infinitive Form234.4 More Verb Forms: -ing and -ed234.5 Finite and Nonfinite Verbs244.6 Auxiliary Verbs254.7 Auxiliary Verb Types254.8 The NICE Properties of Auxiliaries284.9 Semi-auxiliaries294.10 Tense and Aspect294.11 Voice315 Adjectives315.1 Character
4、istics of Adjectives335.2 Attributive and Predicative Adjectives345.3 Inherent and Non-inherent Adjectives355.4 Stative and Dynamic Adjectives365.5 Nominal Adjectives375.6 Adjectives and Nouns385.7 Participial Adjectives405.8 The Ordering of Adjectives446 Adverbs476.1 Formal Characteristics of Adver
5、bs486.2 Adverbs and Adjectives496.3 Circumstantial Adverbs506.4 Additives, Exclusives, and Particularizers516.5 Wh- Adverbs516.6 Sentence Adverbs527 Prepositions527.1 Complex Prepositions537.2 Marginal Prepositions548 Conjunctions558.1 Coordination Types568.2 False Coordination579 Minor word classes
6、589.1 Formulaic Expressions589.2 Existential there599.3 Uses of It5910 Introduces phrases6010.1 Defining a Phrase6010.2 The Basic Structure of a Phrase6110.3 More Phrase Types6210.4 Noun Phrase (NP)6310.5 Verb Phrase (VP)6410.6 Adjective Phrase (AP)6510.7 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)6510.8 Prepositional Phr
7、ase (PP)6610.9 Phrases within Phrases6611 Clauses and sentences6711.1 The Clause Hierarchy6811.2 Finite and Nonfinite Clauses6911.3 Subordinate Clause Types7011.3.1 Relative Clauses7111.3.2 Nominal Relative Clauses7211.3.3 Small Clauses7211.4 Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types7311.5 Sentences7411.6
8、 The Discourse Functions of Sentences7511.6.1 Declarative7511.6.2 Interrogative7511.6.3 Imperative7611.6.4 Exclamative7711.7 The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences7712 Form and Function7812.1 Subject and Predicat7912.2 Characteristics of the Subject8012.3 Realisations of t
9、he Subject8212.4 Some Unusual Subjects8412.5 Inside the Predicate8412.6 The Direct Object8512.7 Realisations of the Direct Object8612.8 Subjects and Objects, Active and Passive8712.9 The Indirect Object8712.10 Realisations of the Indirect Object8812.11 Adjuncts8812.12 Realisations of Adjuncts8912.13
10、 Sentence Patterns from a Functional Perspective9012.14 Some Untypical Sentence Patterns9213 Functions and Phrases9413.1 Complements9413.2 Complements in other Phrase Types9613.3 Adjuncts in Phrases9713.4 Complements and Adjuncts Compared9813.5 Specifiers991 An Introduction to Word classesWords are
11、fundamental units in every sentence, so we will begin by looking at these. Consider the words in the following sentence: my brother drives a big carWe can tell almost instinctively that brother and car are the same type of word, and also that brother and drives are different types of words. By this
12、we mean that brother and car belong to the same word class. Similarly, when we recognise that brother and drives are different types, we mean that they belong to different word classes. We recognise seven MAJOR word classes: Verbbe, drive, grow, sing, thinkNounbrother, car, David, house, LondonDeter
13、minera, an, my, some, theAdjectivebig, foolish, happy, talented, tidyAdverbhappily, recently, soon, then, therePrepositionat, in, of, over, withConjunctionand, because, but, if, or You may find that other grammars recognise different word classes from the ones listed here. They may also define the b
14、oundaries between the classes in different ways. In some grammars, for instance, pronouns are treated as a separate word class, whereas we treat them as a subclass of nouns. A difference like this should not cause confusion. Instead, it highlights an important principle in grammar, known as GRADIENC
15、E. This refers to the fact that the boundaries between the word classes are not absolutely fixed. Many word classes share characteristics with others, and there is considerable overlap between some of the classes. In other words, the boundaries are fuzzy, so different grammars draw them in different
16、 places. We will discuss each of the major word classes in turn. Then we will look briefly at some MINOR word classes. But first, let us consider how we distinguish between word classes in general.1.1 Criteria for Word ClassesWe began by grouping words more or less on the basis of our instincts abou
17、t English. We somehow feel that brother and car belong to the same class, and that brother and drives belong to different classes. However, in order to conduct an informed study of grammar, we need a much more reliable and more systematic method than this for distinguishing between word classes. We
18、use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word: 1. The meaning of the word 2. The form or shape of the word 3. The position or environment of the word in a sentence 1.1.1 MeaningUsing this criterion, we generalize about the kind of meanings that words convey. For exampl
19、e, we could group together the words brother and car, as well as David, house, and London, on the basis that they all refer to people, places, or things. In fact, this has traditionally been a popular approach to determining members of the class of nouns. It has also been applied to verbs, by saying
20、 that they denote some kind of action, like cook, drive, eat, run, shout, walk. This approach has certain merits, since it allows us to determine word classes by replacing words in a sentence with words of similar meaning. For instance, in the sentence My son cooks dinner every Sunday, we can replac
21、e the verb cooks with other action words: My son cooks dinner every Sunday My son prepares dinner every Sunday My son eats dinner every Sunday My son misses dinner every Sunday On the basis of this replacement test, we can conclude that all of these words belong to the same class, that of action wor
22、ds, or verbs. However, this approach also has some serious limitations. The definition of a noun as a word denoting a person, place, or thing, is wholly inadequate, since it excludes abstract nouns such as time, imagination, repetition, wisdom, and chance. Similarly, to say that verbs are action wor
23、ds excludes a verb like be, as in I want to be happy. What action does be refer to here? So although this criterion has a certain validity when applied to some words, we need other, more stringent criteria as well. 1.1.2 The form or shape of a wordSome words can be assigned to a word class on the ba
24、sis of their form or shape. For example, many nouns have a characteristic -tion ending: action, condition, contemplation, demonstration, organization, repetition Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible: acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible, suitable, terrible Many words also take wh
25、at are called INFLECTIONS, that is, regular changes in their form under certain conditions. For example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually by adding an -s at the end: car - cars dinner - dinners book - books Verbs also take inflections: walk - walks - walked - walking 1.1.3 The position or
26、 environment of a word in a sentenceThis criterion refers to where words typically occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words which typically occur near to them. We can illustrate the use of this criterion using a simple example. Compare the following: 1 I cook dinner every Sunday 2 The cook is on
27、holiday In 1, cook is a verb, but in 2, it is a noun. We can see that it is a verb in 1 because it takes the inflections which are typical of verbs: I cook dinner every Sunday I cooked dinner last Sunday I am cooking dinner today My son cooks dinner every Sunday And we can see that cook is a noun in
28、 2 because it takes the plural -s inflection The cooks are on holiday If we really need to, we can also apply a replacement test, based on our first criterion, replacing cook in each sentence with similar words:Notice that we can replace verbs with verbs, and nouns with nouns, but we cannot replace
29、verbs with nouns or nouns with verbs: *I chef dinner every Sunday *The eat is on holiday It should be clear from this discussion that there is no one-to-one relation between words and their classes. Cook can be a verb or a noun - it all depends on how the word is used. In fact, many words can belong
30、 to more than one word class. Here are some more examples: She looks very pale (verb) Shes very proud of her looks (noun) He drives a fast car (adjective) He drives very fast on the motorway (adverb) Turn on the light (noun) Im trying to light the fire (verb) I usually have a light lunch (adjective)
31、 You will see here that each italicised word can belong to more than one word class. However, they only belong to one word class at a time, depending on how they are used. So it is quite wrong to say, for example, cook is a verb. Instead, we have to say something like cook is a verb in the sentence
32、I cook dinner every Sunday, but it is a noun in The cook is on holiday. Of the three criteria for word classes that we have discussed here, the Internet Grammar will emphasise the second and third - the form of words, and how they are positioned or how they function in sentences. 1.2 Open and Closed
33、 Word ClassesSome word classes are OPEN, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new ideas are explored.
34、In the late twentieth century, for example, developments in computer technology have given rise to many new nouns: Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email, newsgroup, bitmap, modem, multimedia New verbs have also been introduced: download, upload, reboot, right-click, double-click The adjective and ad
35、verb classes can also be expanded by the addition of new words, though less prolifically. On the other hand, we never invent new prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions. These classes include words like of, the, and but. They are called CLOSED word classes because they are made up of finite sets
36、of words which are never expanded (though their members may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time). The subclass of pronouns, within the open noun class, is also closed. Words in an open class are known as open-class items. Words in a closed class are known as closed-class it
37、ems. In the pages which follow, we will look in detail at each of the seven major word classes.2 NounsNouns are commonly thought of as naming words, and specifically as the names of people, places, or things. Nouns such as John, London, and computer certainly fit this description, but the class of n
38、ouns is much broader than this. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as birth, happiness, evolution, technology, management, imagination, revenge, politics, hope, cookery, sport, literacy. Because of this enormous diversity of reference, it is not very useful to study nouns solely
39、 in terms of their meaning. It is much more fruitful to consider them from the point of view of their formal characteristics. 2.1 Characteristics of NounsMany nouns can be recognised by their endings. Typical noun endings include: -er/-oractor, painter, plumber, writer-ismcriticism, egotism, magneti
40、sm, vandalism-istartist, capitalist, journalist, scientist-mentarrangement, development, establishment, government-tionfoundation, organisation, recognition, supposition Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. The plural of regular nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular: Singula
41、rPluralcarcarsdogdogshousehouses However, there are many irregular nouns which do not form the plural in this way: SingularPluralmanmenchildchildrensheepsheep The distinction between singular and plural is known as NUMBER CONTRAST. We can recognise many nouns because they often have the, a, or an in
42、 front of them: the car an artist a surprise the egg a reviewThese words are called determiners, which is the next word class we will look at. Nouns may take an -s (apostrophe s) or GENITIVE MARKER to indicate possession: the boys pen a spiders web my girlfriends brother Johns houseIf the noun alrea
43、dy has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker appears only as an apostrophe after the plural form: the boys pens the spiders webs the Browns houseThe genitive marker should not be confused with the s form of contracted verbs, as in Johns a good boy (= John is a good boy). Nouns of
44、ten co-occur without a genitive marker between them: rally car table top cheese grater University entrance examinationWe will look at these in more detail later, when we discuss noun phrases. 2.2 Common and Proper NounsNouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS. John Mary L
45、ondon FranceMany names consist of more than one word: John Wesley Queen Mary South Africa Atlantic Ocean Buckingham PalaceProper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar: January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, ThanksgivingAll other nouns are COMMON NOUNS. Since proper nouns
46、usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to: there are three Davids in my class we met two Christmases agoFor the same reason, names of people and places are not normally preceded by determiners the or a/an, though they can be in certain circumstances: its nothing like the America I remember my brother is an Einstein at math
