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1、Schools of Linguistics,What is language?,A lady was regarded as of slightly poor mentality.A doctor asked her to put some pictures into categories.She put flowers,trees,and a dog into the same category.“Because they are all around the house,”she explained.,What is linguistics?,mind,world,world,What
2、is the origin of language?,The people of Earth,tired of pleasing a demanding God,decided to build a tall tower as an easy way to Heaven.Begun on the plains of Babel,the tower soon rose to great heights.God,viewing the audacity of His people,confounded their language,creating chaos and confusion.Unab
3、le to understand each other,the people scattered throughout the Earth,prevented from building another tower to Heaven.-a story from the Old Testament,Science vs.Philosophy,语言学的三大发源地Ancient China,India and Greece as the cradle land of linguistics,Philosophy,Anthropology and Philology.Religion(particu
4、larly for the determination of the religiously preferred spoken and written forms of sacred texts in Hebrew,Sanskrit and Arabic.)Contemporary Western linguistics is close to philosophy and cognitive science.,Ancient Great Thinkers,Xun Zi(c313-238B.C.)A name was accepted through public agreement,and
5、the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.我国古代哲学家关于“名”“实”问题的讨论：“名固 无宜，约定俗成谓之宜。”Plato(c427-347B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.Aristotle(384-322B.C.)Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the sp
6、eakers of a given language.,现代语言学发展流程图Development of Modern Linguistics,历史比较语言学 Linguistic&Comparative Linguistics 结构主义语言学 Structural Linguistics 布拉格学派 哥本哈根学派 伦敦学派 美国描写主义学派Prague School Copenhagen School London School American Descriptive School 系统-功能语言学 转换生成语言学Systematic-functional Linguistics Tran
7、sformational-generative linguistics,结构主义语言学创立的背景,第一阶段是由古希腊哲学家和语文学家创立的“语法”。这种“语法”是以逻辑为基础建立的一些规则，没有涉及到语言结构。第二阶段是到了十八世纪末出现的语文学。语文学派认为语言不是唯一的研究对象，相反他重视的是古文献，因此，语文学主要是确定、解读和评注古文献，币忽视活的、现时的语言研究。最重要的是第三阶段，比较语文学或称比较语法阶段。比较语法源于英国东方学家威廉琼斯，他曾在东印度公司任职，精通梵语和波斯语。在长期的语言实践过程中，他发现印度的古语言梵语，有许多语法形式和词根跟欧洲的一些语言有联系，1786年
8、他在印度.亚洲学会”宣读论文.阐述了这些新的看法。,Classical Chinese,中国传统的语文学小学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，所以中国的“小学”被人们称之为经学的附庸。抓住汉字，分析形体，讲求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。,Sanskrit in India,波尼尼（潘尼尼、巴尼尼 Pnini）八书是一部梵语语法著作。这部著作写在公元前600前300年之前。布龙菲尔德称波尼尼的语法著作是“人类最伟大的里程碑之一。它极为详细地描写了梵语中的每一个屈折变化、派生现象、组织结
9、构和各种句法的用途。迄今为止，没有任何其他语言学有过如此完善的描写。古印度语言学最突出的成就表现在语音学上。,古今语言研究的区别：Distinctiveness between“Ancient”and“Contemporary”,在语文学时期，语言研究就和各种文献的研究密不可分，它的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。如古印度的语言学家研究语言的目的是为了传播和阅读古代印度的宗教颂歌吠陀经，古希腊的语言学则从哲学的角度研究语言，语言的研究工作主要是由哲学家来承担的。中国是围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展
10、开研究的。语言学的历史虽然悠久，但由于其研究的局限性，在古代语言学并没有成为一门独立的学科。,Traditional Grammar,Traditional linguistics was practical in nature.People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students.They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting p
11、oint.They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language.,神学的奴婢，经学的附庸语言学,17世纪末18世纪初，历史比较语言学的诞生，使语言学走上了独立发展的道路。,Modern Linguistics,语言学成为一门独立的学科是19世纪的事。语言学家吸收和使用比较方法来研究梵语和希腊语、拉丁语、日耳曼语等的关系，创造了历史比较法，用来研究和揭示语言的发展规律。这时语言学家的视野扩大了，他们不但研究书面语，也研究口语；不但研究本国语，也研究其他语言，对多种语言的结构、特点进行比较分析，以
12、历史的眼光去研究语言这样，语言研究有了自己独立的研究对象语言，同时也有了自己独立的研究方法历史比较法，从而使语言学摆脱了过去的附庸地位而成为一门独立的学科。,Modern Linguistics,The modern field of linguistics dates from the beginning of the 19th century.While ancient India and Greece had a remarkable grammatical tradition,throughout most of history linguistics had been the pro
13、vince of philosophy,rhetoric,and literary analysis to try to figure out how human language works.,历史比较语言学 Linguistic&Comparative Linguistics,19世纪历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法，通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们的共同母语。历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，主要是印欧语系的历史比较，19世纪之前，这种研究不是没有，但都是孤立的分散的研究，到19世纪才进入系统的研究，并使语言学走上独立发展的道路。19世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学
14、的发展做出了重要贡献。他们收集了丰富的语言材料，进行了广泛深入的调查和比较，不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的譜系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。,19世纪历史比较语言学在理论和方法上大致可以分为三个阶段：,在初始阶段(Proto-Indo-European)，丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑被成为历史比较语言学的奠基者。19世纪中期，历史比较语言学发展到第二阶段，最有代表性的人物是德国的洪堡特（Humboldt）和施莱歇尔。19世纪的最后25年是历史比较语言学的“新语法学派”(Neo
15、grammarian School Period)时期。这个学派的代表人物是德国的奥斯特霍夫和布鲁克曼，他们在自己创办的刊物形态学研究上正式宣布：语音的演变规律不允许任何例外。,Wilhelm von Humboldt,He is credited with being the first European linguist to identify human language as a rule-governed system,rather than just a collection of words and phrases paired with meanings.This idea i
16、s one of the foundations of Noam Chomskys theory of language.Chomsky frequently quotes Humboldts description of language as a system which makes infinite use of finite means,meaning that an infinite number of sentences can be created using a finite number of grammatical rules.However,Chomskys use of
17、 Humboldt has been criticized as being highly misleading.,Wilhelm von Humboldt,In recent times,Humboldt has also been credited as an originator of the linguistic relativity hypothesis(more commonly known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis),approximately a century before either Edward Sapir or Benjamin Wh
18、orf but Humboldts view of the differences between languages was more subtle and less rigid.,SapirWhorf hypothesis,In linguistics,the SapirWhorf hypothesis(SWH)(also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis)postulates a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a
19、 person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it.Although known as the SapirWhorf hypothesis,it was an underlying axiom of linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir and his colleague and student Benjamin Whorf.,SapirWhorf hypothesis,The hypothesis postulates that a part
20、icular languages nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers:that different language patterns yield different patterns of thought.This idea challenges the possibility of perfectly representing the world with language,because it implies that the mechanisms of any language condition the tho
21、ughts of its speaker community.The hypothesis emerges in strong and weak formulations.,The Study of Language Structure,At the beginning of the 20th century,attention shifted to the fact that not only language change,but language structure as well.It is believed that the world is systematic and gover
22、ned by regular rules and principles.,The Study of Language Structure,By the 1920s,the program of structural linguistics,inspired in large part by the ideas of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure,was developing sophisticated methods of grammatical analysis.This period also saw an intensified sch
23、olarly study of languages that had never been written down.It had by then become commonplace,for example,for an American linguist to spend several years working out the intricacies of the grammars of Chippewa,Ojibwa,Apache,Mohawk,or some other indigenous language of North America.,Linguistic Autonom
24、y 语言自主观,According to Saussure,internal and external linguistic elements are distinctively against each other,with the former the object of study and the latter not.语言系统的自主性是科学抽象的必然结果。将内外因素隔绝开来才能建立一个性质单纯、界限清晰的语言系统。符号之间形成的互相对立与制约关系就是决定语言系统的重要因素。宋宣结构主义语言学思想发微,Sign Value,语言符号的价值决定于语言系统的整体性质。从单个符号内部来看，符号
25、的价值取决于所指（语义内容）和能指（语音形式）之间的对立关系；从符号之间的相互关系来说，则又是这个所指和能指统一体与另一个所指和能指统一体之间的对立关系。即语言系统是一种“形式”（form）而非“实质”(substance);是具有特定模式的结构，而不是有具体成分简单相加。,Linguistic Formalization 语言形式观,Two steps of formalization are expected,they are abstraction and formularization.数学科学是研究方法形式化的最佳典型。早在古希腊黄金时代，欧几里德就把人们对图形的认识通过公理化的方法十分完美的表达了出来，更不必说数学中的代数系统、数论系统和数理逻辑系统，因此，数学被誉为“科学的皇后”。,
