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1、Chapter Three The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations:Choice of Words,Page 2,1.Three levels of rhetorical operations2.Choice of words 2.1 Using suitable words 2.2 Denotation and connotation 2.3 General words and specific words 2.4 Abstract words and concrete words 2.5 Short words and long words,Pa
2、ge 3,Rhetoric consists of two basic aspects:,a)Communicative rhetoric emphasizes the choice of words and phrases,and selection of sentence patterns,organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed more clearly,more accurately and more appropriately and the bes
3、t results are achieved in communication.b)Aesthetic rhetoric stresses the vividness and gracefulness in expressing ones ideas by artistic approaches like the use of figures of speech so as to increase the emotional appeal of ones speech or writing.,Page 4,The difference between grammar and rhetoric,
4、1.Grammar will tell you such things as where words can go and where they cannot;It will distinguish an acceptable sentence from an unacceptable one.It deals with matters of right or wrong,whereas rhetoric speaks in terms of better or worse.2.In the vast majority of cases,it is easy to judge whether
5、a sentence is grammatical or not.It is far harder to say whether one version of a text is rhetorically superior to another.3.Writing grammatically is of course a prerequisite,but it is only the first step.As an expert user of a language you must progress from mere grammatical competence to rhetorica
6、l competence.,Page 5,Read and comment upon the following paragraph,1.Before I went to school,I spent my time playing with my friends.When the weather was bad,I had to stay at home and my mother used to try to teach me to read and write.When I was five years old,I started my primary education.My fami
7、ly lived in a small town in Scotland.I used to go home when the bell rang for lunch.After I finished lunch,I quickly ran back to school.We used to play in the school playground before the afternoon classes began.When I was at primary school,I studied very simple subjects.The second world war started
8、 after I had been at primary school for three years.In 1942,I sat the entrance examination to junior secondary school.,Page 6,We should note the following essential points:,1 In our choice of words,we must pay attention to their meaning,sound,and context of use.2 When writing sentences,we must consi
9、der their structure,length,and cohesion.3 Figures of speech are an important part of our writing armory(宝库).,Page 7,2.Choice of words,2.1 Using suitable words,1)Characteristic of English vocabulary:include over a half-million words,and thousands of new ones are added every year.,2)Principles of choo
10、sing words:To communicate our ideas precisely and effectively,we should choose the right words that are exact,fresh,vivid,and appropriate.E.g.,a fond/loving look,my fond/loving mother A _ mother may spoil her child.(fond/love)In spite of his failure,he has a _ belief in his intelligence.(fond/love),
11、Page 8,2.1 Using suitable words,Choose the most appropriate words:E.g.,Mother Teresa is notorious for her work with the poor and sick in India.Because he did not know either party,the arbitrator was able to take an uninterested view of the dispute.The businessperson has upheld a reputation for decep
12、tion and deceit.,E.g.The sales drive is over and you cant expect everything to be cheap/so inexpensive.During times of mass unemployment,there is a pool of _ labor for employers.I wish youd stop making _ jokes about my friends.,Page 9,(2)Be aware of the audience or readers and suit to the occasion:,
13、Jacks house was destroyed by fire.Jim went to comfort him and asked him to contact the insurance company.“Cheer up,my friend,”he said,“your insurance claim will be proceeding like a house on a fire,Im sure.”,Page 10,2.2 Denotation and connotation,Definitions:Denotation is the specific,direct,and lit
14、eral meaning of a word,as described in a dictionary definition.It is also called denotative meaning or explicit meaning.E.g.A man was killed and his son was seriously injured in an automobile accident.The boy was rushed to a hospital.The surgeon took one look at him and said,“This is my son!I cant o
15、perate on him!”,Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word.It often implies attitudes,emotions,ect.of the speaker or writer,and is also called implicit meaning.E.g.“Proverb”would be the appropriate word to use in reference to saying from the Bible.“Saw”is often used in reference
16、to the wisdom handed down to us anonymously.“Epigram”is often used in reference to a witty statement.,Page 11,Different kinds of connotations:,(1)Words may have positive and negative connotations,(2)Words have historical and social connotations,(3)Words have personal and general connotations,E.g.She
17、 has a slender figure.She looked thin after her illness.The child has skinny,freckled legs with prominent knees.The old horse was bony.,E.g.It may yet compound the misery of Iraq in the same way Watergate followed Vietnam.The old man is in the twilight of his career.,Page 12,Three aspects of connota
18、tion,Negative neutral positiveDisapproving approvingDerogatory Unfavorable favorable,Page 13,Words with the same detonation but different connotations:,Page 14,Page 15,Ex _ Diction(1-1),In each sentences,choose the more precise of the two in italics,and explain your reasons.1.A few listeners were di
19、sinterested/uninterested and dozed off.2.Though she has grown up,her behavior is often childlike/childish.,Page 16,Ex _ Diction(1-2),3.I am quite jealous/envious of your opportunity to study at such a famous university.4.Her clothes,though made of cheap/inexpensive material,are quite elegant.5.I am
20、sorry to refuse/decline your invitation.,Page 17,Ex _ Diction(1-3),6.He was surprised/shocked/stunned to find that little sister had become a pretty,slim/skinny young woman.7.This servile man was especially modest/humble when he was talking with his superiors.,Page 18,Ex _ Diction(1-4),8.This homely
21、/ugly old man is a well-known musician.9.My uncle became fat/stout as he grew older.10.Is that old/elderly woman/lady sitting on the bench your mother?,Page 19,Ex _ Diction(1-5),11.The enemy troops were driven back when they attempted/tried to cross the border.12.They all felt sympathy/pity for the
22、victims of the disaster and made donations.13.Empress Doeager Cixi was famous/notorious for her cruelty.,Page 20,Something needed to be emphasized,(1)The connotations of a word are constantly changing.(2)Both denotation and connotation are important aspects of the meaning of a word.(3)We can find th
23、e denotation of a word in the dictionary but we can acquire connotation only through extensive reading and attentive listening,by observing how it is actually used in speech and writing.,Page 21,2.3 General words and specific words,1)Definitions:general words refer to a group or class;specific words
24、 refer to a member of that class.,The specific words tend to give color and tang,tend to appeal to the imagination.General words often used for the sake of diplomacy.Good writing or speaking has both general and specific information.,E.g.(1)a.Eiseley wrote about people prominent in science.b.Eiseley
25、 wrote about Darwin,Einstein and Franklin.(2)a.They were specially concerned with astronomy.b.They were specially concerned with the solar system.,2)Proprieties in writing or speaking specifically or generally,E.g.He saw a ship/liner/brig/bark/tank/cargo steamer on the horizon.Some employees have be
26、en tying up the office phones with personal call.,Page 22,3)Approaches to write or speak in a specific way:,Two correspondents on probation once reported to the headquarters on a recent battle.One sent back a brief but timely account of what had happened and how it ended(or perhaps how it was going
27、on,if necessary),while the other one was still busy writing about the event with a lot of unnecessary details.Which one did well in reporting the war?,Informative writing or speaking invariably has a balance of“telling”and“showing”.General and abstract expressions“tell”,while concrete and specific e
28、xpressions“show”.For example,A)Choosing words that bring about specific instead of vague ideas,E.g.(1)a.She uses simplicity in her style of writing.b.She writes with plain words and simple sentence patterns.(2)a.The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities a great deal.b.The ne
29、w expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities by 30 percent.,Page 23,B)Listing specific details,C)Using illustrative examples,E.g.(1)a.Near the water there was a big tree that was rather impressive.b.On the edge of the pond,at the far side,there was an enormous walnut tree(胡桃树),standi
30、ng like an open umbrella whose ribs(枝干)extended halfway across the still water of the pool.,E.g.In this century,the president is much more cut off from contact with the people than in earlier times.Ordinary citizens,for example,could get to see Abraham Lincoln directly in the White House and make th
31、eir requests to him in person.,Page 24,General and Specific(1),kind,honest,just,generous,sympathetic,warm-heartedselfless,honorable,Page 25,General and Specific(2),tasty,delicious,nourishing,rich,wholesome,fresh,appetizing,abundant,Page 26,General and Specific(3),smile,grin,beam,giggle,titter,snigge
32、r,chuckle,guffaw,Page 27,General and Specific(4),gaze,glance/glimpse,glare,peek,peer,stare,watch,goggle,leer,scowl,Page 28,General and Specific(5),annoyed,desperate,enraged,furious,infuriating,irritated,outraged,sullen,Page 29,English offers a fascinating variety of specific words for many activitie
33、s and interests.When we say a man is walking,we can also say that a man is marching,pacing,patrolling,stalking,striding,treading,tramping,stepping out,prancing,strutting,prowling,plodding,strolling,shuffling,staggering,sidling,trudging,toddling,rambling,roaming,sauntering,meandering,lounging,loiteri
34、ng,or creeping.But each of them conveys to us a slightly different meaning.No matter which word we use,it should match our thought and suit to the occasion.,Page 30,stalk:高视阔步,大踏步走 stride:大踏步走;跨过 tread:步行于,在上走;踩(烂),践踏trudge trd:v.沉重地走,蹒跚地走prance pr:ns v.腾跃,欢跃,昂首阔步shuffle fl:拖曳,慢吞吞地走Sidle saidl:v.(偷偷
35、地)侧身而行saunter s:nt:v.闲逛,漫步lounge laund:v.闲荡,懒洋洋地躺卧loiter lit:v.闲荡,虚度,徘徊creep kri:p:v.爬,徐行,蠕动,Page 31,More examples:,1.The drunkard staggered（蹒跚）from the coffee shop and clung to a lamp-post.2.The hikers reached the town after a long walk and plodded（重步行走）wearily to the hotel.3.The man whose wife was
36、 expecting the first baby was pacing（踱步）nervously up and down the hospital corridor.4.After class,the children did not go home direct but loitered（游荡）on the way.5.The manager strode（大步走）into the office and asked who was late for work.6.The puppy strayed（迷途）from its home and was completely lost.7.The
37、 cock is strutting（昂头阔步）up and down the farmyard.8.After dinner,I went rambling（漫步）in the park.9.The thief has been lurking（潜行）in a corner for his unsuspecting victims.10.Not wishing to be noticed,the boy crept（爬行）downstairs.,Page 32,11.At the weekend,Tom and his friends went strolling（闲逛）in the tow
38、n.12.In her hurry,the maid stumbled（绊倒）and fell flat on the floor.13.The farmer trudged（艰难地走）home with his hoe.14.The mountaineers scrambled（攀爬）up the hill side.15.The car lurched（摇摆不定）forward across the grass.16.With one leg hurt,John limped（跛行）home.17.Beasts come out to prowl（四处觅食）after their prey
39、 at night.18.Before babies can walk,they crawl（爬行）.19.The victorious army marched（迈进）into the conquered city.20.The pedestrians rushed（快步走）here and there in the rain.,Page 33,笑的种种说法laugh,giggle,chuckle,grin,guffaw,beam,smile,Giggle音调高或尖声地笑,常指儿童或女孩咯咯笑The girls whispered and giggled together.Chuckle轻笑
40、,暗笑,常用比喻意义,指觉得满意He was chuckling to himself over what he was reading.He must be chuckling at his success.Grin指露齿而笑He grinned broadly at me.Guffaw放声大笑,哄笑 The company guffawed at the silly answer.beam笑逐颜开Her face beamed with joy.Smile 微笑,反义词frownHe smiled to see the children play.,Page 34,General and
41、Specific,I have a tool in my hand.I have an axe in my hand.A man is walking down the street.A man is strolling down the street.That was a very wonderful movie.That was a very instructive movie.The proposal covers all important aspects of the problem.The proposal covers cost,materials,methodology,and
42、 personnel.,Page 35,2.4 Abstract words and concrete words,1)Definitions:A concrete word has an object as its referent,while an abstract word,a concept.For example,peach,pear,apple and apricot are concrete words.Sweetness,fuzziness and softness are abstract words because they refer to certain qualiti
43、es or certain concepts or ideas.,2)Relationship between abstract/concrete words and general/specific words:Abstract words and general words usually do not overlap.But this is not the case with concrete words and specific words.Words that refer to particular objects and particular actions are usually
44、 both concrete or specific.,3)Both abstract/general words and concrete/specific words have their own advantages:,Page 36,2.5 Short words and long words,1)From a stylistic point of view,words that are often used may be divided into three types:formal,common,and colloquial words.Long words often refer
45、 to the formal words and some common words,while short words often refer to colloquial words and some common words.,a.If you wish to cash a cheque,please let us know well before you leave.b.In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests,we would appreciate your co-operation in anticip
46、ating your credit requirements before your departure.,Page 37,Formal words,also called learned words,literary words or big words,mainly appear in formal writing,such as scholarly or theoretical writing,political and legal documents,and formal lectures.Most of formal words are of Greek,Latin or Frenc
47、h origin.Except for special purpose formal words are seldom used in daily conversation.So,we must use appropriate words according to the formality of the situation.,E.g.(2)a.According to a Native American myth,the Great Creator had dog hanging around with him when he created the earth.b.According to
48、 a Native American myth,the Great Creator was accompanied by a dog when he created the earth.,Page 38,2.a).Ive gotta be in court at nine on Tuesday morning.For sure I wont be back in time for Walkers bio test.Hope the old guy lets me take a makeup.b).Excuse me,sir.I have to be in court next Tuesday
49、and so I have to be absent from the biology test.Would it be possible for me to take it at some later time?,Page 39,Examples,automobile car wheels Fortitude strength guts Visage face mug Attire clothes threads Spectacle glasses specs Expropriate steal rip-off Voluble talkative big-mouthed,Page 40,Fo
50、rmal Words,There is nothing new in the recognition,within a given language,of a distinction between common usage and uses of the language for more restricted purposes and often enough,perhaps characteristically,more elevated purposes.The monolithic nature of English is not questioned when literary e
