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1、Explicit and Implicit Cognition and KnowledgeDepartment of PsychologyChao-Ming Cheng,General Introduction The Metacognition Approach to the Distinction Between Explicit and Implicit Cognition and Knowledge Explicit(Conscious)Cognition and KnowledgeConscious Non-Human Organisms?When Does Human Become
2、 Conscious?Language,Consciousness,and SchizophreniaImplicit(Unconscious)Cognition and KnowledgeDissociation between Conscious and Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Evidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Knowledge,Comtes Critiques:Introspection:unreliab
3、le Comtes paradox Liar paradox Hegels paradox Authority paradox Truth-value paradox“Thiss sentence contains threee errors.”Tarskis theory of truth(1956),Conscious Cognition and Control,Intentional learningConscious memory(e.g.,recall,recognition)Conscious perception,Unconscious Cognition and Control
4、,Reflexive behaviorInstinctive behaviorVisceral controlImplicit perception(e.g.,blind sight,agnosia,prosopagnosia)Subliminal perceptionUnconscious memory and Unconscious learningIncidental learningLatent learningAutomatic processing of motor or cognitive skills,病人的無意識心智,盲視（blindsight）（Weiskrantz et
5、al.,1974;Weiskrantz,1986,1990）e.g.Pateint D.B.視覺失認症（visual agnosia）（Humphreys 1985）e.g.Patient G.L.Patient H.J.A.臉形失認症（prosopagnosia）（Bauer,1984）e.g.Patient L.F.失憶症（anterograde amnesia）（Warrington&Weiskrantz,1970）,Evolutionarily old structures and processes Robustness of unconscious perception,learn
6、ing,and memoryAge and development-level independenceLow variability across individualsIQ independenceCommonality of process across species,Hypothesized Characteristics of Unconscious Control(Reber,1993),Explicit(Conscious)Cognition and Knowledge Conscious Non-Human Organisms?When Does Human Become C
7、onscious?Language,Consciousness,and Schizophrenia,Case 1:Sarahs problem solving(Premack the other illustrated the solution to another problem.Results:Correct choice.,Conscious Non-Human Organisms?,Case 2:Mirror-guided marked tests in chimps.,monkeys,gibbons,orangutan(Gallup,1970)Exhibited behaviors:
8、self-directed actions,touching the mark,self-recognition,self-awareness?,Figure 4.The animal mind.,Case 3:Deception and the Machiavellian hypothesis:Can animals deliberately behave in such a way so as to mislead other animals into a state of false belief(Whiten&Byrne,1988).Evidence:Evidence 1:Baboon
9、s deception for stealing meat from a male baboon.Evidence 2:Baboons deception to groom a young male,that is not tolerated by the male leader.,Figure 5.The Melzack and Wall theory of pain mechanisms.The large-(L)and small-(S)diameter fibres project to the substantia gelatinosa(SG)and first central tr
10、ansmission(T)cells.The inhibitory effect exerted by SG on the afferent fibre terminals is increased by activity in L fibres and decreased by activity in S fibres.The central control system is represented by a line running from the large-fibre system to the central mechanisms;these mechanisms in turn
11、 project back to the gate control system.The T cells project to the action system+,excitation;-,inhibition.(From Melzack,1993).,2.Auditory and visual recognitionDeCasper&Spence(1986):Auditory memoryPregnant mothers read aloud a short(three-minute)childrens story daily-the same one every dayfor the l
12、ast six weeks of their pregnancy.Within two days of birth,their babies fitted with earphones,through which they would hear either the same story or another story(read by their mothers),were tested for recognition of the story.Their spontaneous rate of sucking a nipple was recorded.Results:Eight babi
13、es:increased in rate for familiar story and decreased in rate for a new story.Eight babies:decreased for familiar story and increased for the new story.Babies altered their sucking rates so as to listen to the familiar story in preference to the new story.,Fagan(1973):Visual memorySubjects:babies of
14、 5-month old.Results:Babies preferred to look at new rather than familiar pictures up to 48 hours later.Pascalis&Deschonen(1994)Babies of 3-day old preferred looking at new photographs(of female faces)to looking at familiar photographs.3.Learning to do thingsRovee-Collier&Shyi(1992)Babies of two-mnt
15、h old could learn to kick for watching mobiles and maintained it over 24 hrs.Six-mnth-olds showed retention over two wks.,4.The transition to talking:Toddlers recallQuestion:Babies can retain memories for a variety of types of experience over relatively long periods.Why,then,do we not recall those e
16、xperiences in adulthood?Possibility:The development of language somehow makes these memories inaccessible.Conclusion thus far:Infants can store information about a wide variety of events,and this information is not lost in the transition from preverbal to verbal life.But proof of conscious recall?,5
17、.Conscious recall?Howe,Courage,&Peterson(1994)Subjects:patients at the emergency room of a hospital.Task:They were asked six months later what they remembered of their incident.e.g.,KB,18 mnths and not yet talking,caught a fish bone in her throat.The bone was removed at the hospital.Six mnths later,
18、KB was talking,but could not recall in words anything abut the incident.However,she did pick out a photograph of the emergency-room doctor who removed the bone,and refused to eat fish since the incident.,Leichtman&Ceci(1993)Eight-mnth-old infants were shown a puppet which had mittens.They were rewar
19、ded to obtain a treat by removing one of the mittens.After extensive practice over a 3-wk period,the puppet was removed for four mnths.When the puppet appeared again,the subjects displayed little interest in it,but when they did play with it,they touched almost exclusively the mitten that had concea
20、led the treat,ignoring the other mitten.,6.Memory after language developsHowe et al.(1994)Children who were verbal at the age the incident occurred(from 27 mnths old)showed clear evidence of conscious recall six months later.7.Language and recall It seems that infants who have not learned to talk do
21、 not consciously recall the events of heir lives,whereas children,who can talk,recall.If this account is valid,then infantile amnesia is not caused by a block of repression of infant memories,but by the failure to form conscious memories preverbally.8.The Pillemer&White(1989)two memory systemsOne op
22、erates throughout life,and cannot be accessed intentionally,but only by contextual cues.The other depends on language,and can be accessed intentionally.It is this latter system that is used for conscious recall.It is because the system does not develop until language develops that we cannot recall i
23、nfant life.,9.Development of the self-conceptHowe begin to discriminate between video recordings of themselves and of other children of the same age.,Figure 6.The interaction between the left and right hemispheres.,Is language the key?PET studies on the task of verbal generation in superior temporal
24、 gyrus(STG)(Frith et al.,1995)Normal participantsSTG was activated by listening to spoken language,but inhibited during self-generated speech.Schizophrenic patientsNo such inhibition was recorded during PET scanning,suggesting that self-monitoring of speech signals is a key component of the disorder
25、.,Implications:Schizophrenia is a disorder of the interaction between the two hemispheres;there is a failure to establish unequivocal dominance.Normal inter-hemispheric integration:Inhibition of any awareness by the verbally expressive hemispheric consciousness that it actually receives and sends th
26、oughts,intentions,and feelings from and to another consciousness.In schizophrenia this integration is disturbed with the result that the LH consciousness becomes aware of an influence from an“external”force,which in fact is the RH.,Implicit(Unconscious)Cognition and KnowledgeDissociation between Con
27、scious and Unconscious Cognition and KnowledgeEvidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning,Implicit(Unconscious)Cognition and KnowledgeImplicit cognition and knowledge occurs when the processes by which information is acquired and the content of this
28、information are unavailable to ones conscious awareness.Direct tests:Direct tests encourage performance on the basis of consciously available information.Indirect tests:Indirect tests avoid encouraging the use of conscious knowledge.Implicit learning is demonstrated when indirect tests reflect knowl
29、edge acquisition and direct tests do not.,Figure 7.Number of articles published with implicit memory and implicit learning in their titles.,在辭典中共出現107次，第1筆到第35筆：,【北口馬】【保馬法】【保甲法】【保久乳】【保險法】【保養廠】【板起臉】【補給品】【跑解馬】【跑野馬】【普米語】【馬口鐵】,【馬起臉】【馬祖島】【馬尾港】【馬尾藻】【滿可以】【莽古歹】【米老鼠】【母老虎】【反打瓦】【打粉底】【打底稿】【打體己】,【打緊板】【打槳桿】【打診法】【
30、打水鼓】【打野火】【膽小鬼】【點點點】【點檢所】【討老腳】【討野火】35.【李總統府】36.【打軟腿兒】,文章要分段，將材料依順序排列，使內容有組織，讀起來才為條理清楚。由很多段落組成一篇完整的文章，惡些段落，就叫做文章的結構，依照古人的說法，一篇文章的結構應該要有下列四段，每一段都有不同的功用。起：文章的開頭。承：開頭之後，敘述所要寫的材料。轉：材料的擴充、轉向、舉例等，是分量較多的地方。合：文章的結束。,文章的結構,文章要分成許多段，一段接一段，把要說的話說完，才會成為一篇好的作文。三年級的作文，通常分成三段或四段即可。以下分開說明：（一）分成三段來寫文章，把內容分成先說、再說、後說三部份
31、，如果要寫的內容比較多，可以把再說分成幾個小節來寫。例如：第六課的課文分成三段，其中的第二段分成三個小節來寫。（二）分成四段來寫的文章，把內容分成先說、再說、進一步說、後說四部份。例如：第二課和第四課的課文，都是分成四段來寫的文章。文章有好的分段，讀起來清楚明白，就會是一篇好文章。說說看：第一課桃花開了的課文，如果分成三段，你要怎麼分？如果分成四段，你要怎麼分？,如何作文,Figure 8.Stimulus material used in the age estimation study(Is this man 25 or 35 years old?).Note that the quali
32、ty of the picture is deliberately low to hide details(texture of skin etc.).,Figure 9.Stimulus material used in the age estimation study(Is this woman more than 25 years old?)Note that the quality of the picture is deliberately low to hide details(texture of skin etc.).,Two Types of Language Learnin
33、g:Conscious and Unconscious,Krashen(1981)First language:Acquisition,mostly unconscious Second language:Learning,conscious,Figure 10.Examples of Chinese characters,pseudocharacters,and noncharacters.,CHARACTER PSEUDOCHARACTER NONCHARACTER,Implicit processes in medical diagnosisThe acute abdominal pai
34、n perforated ulcer,appendicitis,bowel obstruction,dyspepsia,diverticular disease,cholecystitis,pancreatitis,or renal colic.Diagnosis in motor mechanics,system analyst,football coaches,Three possibilities:Basic science knowledge is only important for beginners.As expertise develops,clinical achmen re
35、places biomedical knowledge in medical decision making.Experts do not forget biomedical knowledge,they just do use it in diagnostic decision making.Basic science knowledge becomes implicit and is used automatically;it is implicit,expert clinicians are not aware that they are using this knowledge and
36、,therefore,they do not verbalize it.,The paradox of experts:There is a major bottleneck in the process of experts imparting their expertise to others.There is a difference between what experts say they do and what they actually do;they are often unaware of the nature of their secrets(expertise).They
37、 actually do not know how they do what they do.Methodological problems:Interview with experts(knowledge engineering;MYCIN,NEOMYCIN).The expertise may be context-sensitive,and so will not be accessed in the interview situations.,Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning,Artificial grammar learning
38、Learning in the control of dynamic systemsSerial(sequence)learningCovariation learning,Figure 11.Artificial grammar learning(Reber,1967,1969,1976;Reber&Allen,1978).,Figure 12.,Covariation learning(Lewicki,Hill,&Sasaki,1989)Materials:Simulated brain scans(i.e.,patterns of randomly distributed compute
39、r graphics characters resembling the shape of a brain).Task:Learning phase:For each brain scan,subjects were informed whether it was form an intelligent or a nonintelligent person.The scans of the two groups differed only in a tiny detail:A certain graphics character occurred in the scans of one gro
40、up with a frequency of 13%and that of the other group with a frequency of 17%.Test phase:Subjects had to rate the intelligence of new brain scans.Results:Subjects performed correctly,but they were not aware of the covariation.,Learning in the control of dynamic system(Berry&Broadbent,1984)Task:Produ
41、ction of a stimulated sugar factory.,Independent variable:Number of workers employed(W).Dependent variable:The amount of sugar produced(P)Pt=2Wt-Pt 1+rt where t is the number of trial,rt is the random component at t.Task:Participants were required to choose the W in such a way that the production reached and maintain a prescribed target value.,Serial learning tasks(Nissen&Bullemer,19870)1 2 3 4 Regular sequence:10 sequential locations were cyclically repeatede.g.4231324321/4231324321/4231324321Ransom sequence:the locations were randomly permuted,with no position appearing twice in a row.,
