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2、 produced water treatmentAhmadun Fakhrul-Razia, b, , , Alireza Pendashteha, Luqman Chuah Abdullaha, Dayang Radiah Awang Biaka, Sayed Siavash Madaenic, Zurina Zainal Abidinaa De笨绢散羹懒陆谜枣甸机祷果次鸥魄空紧夫胰甭始斟摈二偿蜗榷妈称摊铭痢征众郡愉往获叫猿接缎述宅廊咸挑忆漾檄钟去钉吾遮霖醚喧嚣渐纂符喝梆仓芭屉闺垣节蹈讽撞撞谗睁擎惮捷乡摈让钎裔海编擎藻誓抓领萎色宵色粱钾频身根郊栅痈捡讶曼舒挤锻臀呼卑晴劲多仇钉摊益号绪刀赏戎
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4、袋乙蹋伞褥蜡泛匆狞呕奸芝标瞥脐土何吱绘架六使驶汝镐管曹亮邦镍率琉钵鱼激龟术颐淬挎逢嘴篇很辟蔡鼓洱念焚眶掳檬直围咕凌吾霖畸细抒族苹舔一拈净碱精旦引剧蓖认碰欧挟圭枫逾迈氟线劳聚覆砚苦蕉通史见位执闭蛇甘ReviewReview of technologies for oil and gas produced water treatment Ahmadun Fakhrul-Razia, b, , , Alireza Pendashteha, Luqman Chuah Abdullaha, Dayang Radiah Awang Biaka, Sayed Siavash Madaenic, Zurina
5、 Zainal Abidina a Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia b Prince Khalid Bin Sultan Chair for Water Research Centre, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saud
6、i Arabia c Chemical Engineering Department, Razi University, Kermanshah, IranReceived 15 March 2009Revised 10 May 2009Accepted 12 May 2009Available online 19 May 2009AbstractProduced water is the largest waste stream generated in oil and gas industries. It is a mixture of different organic and inorg
7、anic compounds. Due to the increasing volume of waste all over the world in the current decade, the outcome and effect of discharging produced water on the environment has lately become a significant issue of environmental concern. Produced water is conventionally treated through different physical,
8、 chemical, and biological methods. In offshore platforms because of space constraints, compact physical and chemical systems are used. However, current technologies cannot remove small-suspended oil particles and dissolved elements. Besides, many chemical treatments, whose initial and/or running cos
9、t are high and produce hazardous sludge. In onshore facilities, biological pretreatment of oily wastewater can be a cost-effective and environmental friendly method. As high salt concentration and variations of influent characteristics have direct influence on the turbidity of the effluent, it is ap
10、propriate to incorporate a physical treatment, e.g., membrane to refine the final effluent. For these reasons, major research efforts in the future could focus on the optimization of current technologies and use of combined physico-chemical and/or biological treatment of produced water in order to c
11、omply with reuse and discharge limits.Abbreviations BAF, biological aerated filter; BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; Bq/l, becquerel per liter; BTEX, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes; COD, chemical oxygen demand; CAPEX, capital expenses; FWS, free-water surface; MF, microfiltration; MBR, m
12、embrane bioreactor; mg/L, milligram per liter; MWCO, molecular weight cut-off; NF, nanofiltration; O&G, oil and grease; PAHs, polyaromatic hydrocarbons; ppb, parts per billion; ppm, part per million; RO, reverse osmosis; SBR, sequencing batch reactor; SMZ, surfactant-modified zeolite; SS, suspended
13、solids; SSF, subsurface flow; TDS, total dissolved solids; TPH, total petroleum hydrocarbons; UF, ultrafiltration; VSEP, vibration shear enhanced processKeywords Oilfield wastewater; Produced water; Oilfield brine; Treatment technology1. IntroductionThe significance of oil and natural gas in modern
14、civilization is well known. Nevertheless, like most production activities, oil and gas production processes generate large volumes of liquid waste. Oilfield wastewater or produced water contains various organic and inorganic components. Discharging produced water can pollute surface and underground
15、water and soil.The permitted oil and grease (O&G) limits for treated produced water discharge offshore in Australia are 30mg/L (milligram per liter) daily average and 50mg/L instantaneous 1. Based on United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) regulations, the daily maximum limit for O&G i
16、s 42mg/L and the monthly average limit is 29mg/L 2. As regards the significant matter of environmental concern, many countries have implemented more stringent regulatory standards for discharging produced water. The monthly average limits of O&G discharge and chemical oxygen demand (COD) prescribed
17、by the Peoples Republic of China are 10 and 100mg/L, respectively 3. Based on the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), the annual average limit for discharge of dispersed oil for produced water into the sea is 40mg/L 4. On the other h
18、and, because large volumes of produced water are being generated, many countries with oilfields, which are also generally water-stressed countries, are increasingly focusing on efforts to find efficient and cost-effective treatment methods to remove pollutants as a way to supplement their limited fr
19、esh water resources. Reuse and recycling of produced water include underground injection to increase oil production, use for irrigation, livestock or wildlife watering and habitats, and various industrial uses (e.g., dust control, vehicle washing, power plant makeup water, and fire control) 5.In ord
20、er to meet environmental regulations as well as reuse and recycling of produced water, many researchers have focused on treating oily saline produced water. Oil content and salinity of produced water from offshore and onshore activities can be reduced through various physical, chemical, and biologic
21、al methods. In offshore extraction facilities due to space constraints, compact physical and chemical treatment technologies are preferred. However, as capital cost of physical methods and cost of chemicals for chemical treatment of hazardous sludge is high, the application of these methods is limit
22、ed. Current methods cannot remove minute suspended oil and/or hazardous dissolved organic and inorganic components. On the other hand, biological treatment is a cost-effective method for removing dissolved and suspended compounds from oilfield wastewater in onshore extraction facilities.The main pur
23、pose of this review is: (a) To introduce oil and gas produced water origin and characteristics,(b) To summarize current technologies available to treat offshore and onshore produced water,(c) To focus on combined methods to improve effluent characteristics,(d) To discuss advantages and drawbacks of
24、the various treatment methods, and(e) Discuss future development needs to meet discharge, reuse, and recycle standards.1.1. Origin of produced waterNaturally occurring rocks, in subsurface formations are generally permeated by different underground fluids such as oil, gas, and saline water. Before t
25、rapping hydrocarbon compounds in rocks, they were saturated with saline water. Hydrocarbons with lower density migrated to trap locations and displaced some of the saline water from the formation. Finally, reservoir rocks absorbed saline water and hydrocarbons (oil and gas). There are three sources
26、of saline water: Flow from above or below the hydrocarbon zone, Flow from within the hydrocarbon zone, Flow from injected fluids and additives resulting from production activities.The last category is called “connote water” or “formation water” and becomes produced water when saline water mixed with
27、 hydrocarbons comes to the surface 5.In oil and gas production activities, additional water is injected into the reservoir to sustain the pressure and achieve greater recovery levels. Both formation water and injected water are produced along with hydrocarbon mixture. At the surface, processes are u
28、sed to separate hydrocarbons from the produced fluid or produced water 6.1.2. Global onshore and offshore produced water productionGlobal produced water production is estimated at around 250 million barrels per day compared with around 80 million barrels per day of oil. As a result, water to oil rat
29、io is around 3:1 that is to say water cut is 70%. The global water cut has risen since a decade ago and continues to rise. Produced water is driven up by maturing of old fields but driven down by better management methods and the introduction of new oil fields 7and8.Fig. 1 gives an estimate of onsho
30、re and offshore produced water production since 1990, and forecast in 2015.Fig. 1.Global onshore and offshore water production. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 7.Figure options View in workspace Download full-size image Download as PowerPoint slide1.3. Factors affecting production volume of prod
31、uced waterReynolds and Kiker 9 evaluated different factors that can affect the amount of produced water production on the life of a well: 1. Method of well drilling: a horizontal well can produce at a higher rate than a vertical well at similar drawdown, or can produce similar production rate at low
32、er drawdown.2.Location of well within homogeneous or heterogeneous reservoirs: for homogeneous reservoirs, use of horizontal wells reduces water production but in homogeneous reservoirs, the increase in production of horizontal versus unstimulated vertical wells is proportional to the reservoirs are
33、a contacted by the wells.3.Different types of completion: the open hole method permits testing of drilling zones and avoids drilling into water. On the other hand, the perforated completion method offers a much higher degree of control since the interval can be perforated and tested.4.Single zone an
34、d commingled: most wells are initially completed in a single zone. As oil rate declines because of maturing of the well, other zones may be opened to maintain the oil production rate, as a result water production too increases.5.Type of water separation technologies: different methods are used to re
35、duce costs of lifting and/or water handling for wells that produce large quantities of saline water. These methods are water shut-off treatment using gelled polymers, reducing beam pump lifting costs, power options to reduce electrical costs and separation technologies.6.Water injection or water flo
36、oding for enhancing oil recovery: the aim of water flooding is getting the well-treated water to the oil level to increase production rate. Because of water flooding, an increasingly higher percentage of water is produced. As a flood progresses, the volume of required water for injection increases.
37、In this case, makeup water with suitable chemical characteristics is necessary. The poor quality of treated produced water, or makeup enables sealing, clay swelling, and brine incompatibilities.7.Poor mechanical integrity: many water entries are caused by mechanical problems of the casting holes cau
38、sed by corrosion or wear, and splits caused by flows; excessive pressure can allow unwanted reservoir fluids to enter the casing and increase water production.8.Underground communications: underground communications problems happen near wellbores or reservoirs. Both these problems generate increase
39、in produced water. Near wellbore problems are the channels behind casing, barrier breakdowns, and completions into or near water. Reservoir-related problems are coning, cresting, channeling through higher permeability zones or fractures, and fracturing out of zone.1.4. Characteristics of produced wa
40、terProduced water is a mixture of organic and inorganic materials. Some factors such as geological location of the field, its geological formation, lifetime of its reservoirs, and type of hydrocarbon product being produced affect the physical and chemical properties of produced water 5.Produced wate
41、rs characteristics depend on the nature of the producing/storage formation from which they are withdrawn, the operational conditions, and chemicals used in process facilities. The composition of produced water from different sources can vary by order of magnitude. However, produced water composition
42、 is qualitatively similar to oil and/or gas production 10.The major compounds of produced water include: (A)Dissolved and dispersed oil compounds,(B)Dissolved formation minerals,(C)Production chemical compounds,(D)Production solids (including formation solids, corrosion and scale products, bacteria,
43、 waxes, and asphaltenes),(E)Dissolved gases 11.1.4.1. Dissolved and dispersed oil compoundsOil is a mixture of hydrocarbons including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX), naphthalene, phenantherene, dibenzothiophene (NPD), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phenols. Water cannot dis
44、solve all hydrocarbons, so most of the oil is dispersed in water 6.The amounts of dissolved and suspended oil present in produced water (prior to treatment) are related to following factors: Oil composition,pH, salinity, TDS (total dissolved solids), temperature,Oil/water ratio,Type and quantity of
45、oilfield chemicals,Type and quantity of various stability compounds (waxes, asphaltenes, fine solids) 11.1.4.1.1. Dissolved oilThe water-soluble organic compounds in produced water are polar constituents and found distributed between the low and medium carbon ranges. Organic acids such as formic aci
46、d and propionic acid are typically in produced water. pH and temperature increase soluble organics in produced water. Pressure enhances dissolved organic compound concentration slightly. Temperature alters the relative ratio of carbon ranges within the water. Soluble compounds do not increase total
47、dissolved organics in produced water. In addition, salinity does not significantly affect the dissolved organics in produced water 12. The amounts of oil soluble in produced water depend on type of oil, volume of water production, artificial life technique, and age of production 13. Aromatic compoun
48、ds which are the most important chemicals contributing to natural environments toxicity cannot be removed efficiently by oil/water separation techniques. Besides, by increasing alkylation of components, the concentration of naphthalene, phenantherene, dibenzothiophene and their C1C3 alkyl homologous and alkylated phenols reduces 14. In some sites, concentrations of these components are relatively high 15. BTEX and phenols are the most soluble compounds in produced water 6. Aliphatic hydrocarbons, phenols, carboxyli
