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1、研究设计之测量,School of Public Administration&PolicyDr.Kaifeng Yang,Issues,概念操作化概念化指标化测量的层次复合指数测量测量的好坏：效度与信度提高效度与信度的途径,概念操作化,沟通绩效?目标清晰度?,例子,沟通绩效?目标清晰度?,从名义/概念定义到操作定义,Nominal(Conceptual)DefinitionA definition that is simply assigned to a term without any claim that the definition represents a“real”entity.I
2、t is A)defined by others;b)what it is vs.what it is not;c)shared;d)realistic and sensible.Operational(Working)DefinitionSpecifies precisely how a concept will be measured,菜谱,概念化,The process we specify what we mean when we use particular terms.It involves describing the essential features of the term
3、s.Sometimes,it involves indicators well be using to measure our concept and the different aspects of the concept(dimensions).Indicator(指标):a sign of the presence or absence of the conceptDimension(纬度/变量):a specifiable aspect of a concept,爱？,指标化:Political Alienation,ConceptualizationDefining the conc
4、ept,Nominal Definition(Variables),Operational Definition(Indicators),Instrumentation,Political distrust,powerlessness,and meaninglessness,Political Distrust:the general feeling that government isno longer of the people,by the people,and for the people,Indicators are responses to the following questi
5、ons:Do you think that quite a few of the people running the government are a little crooked,not very many are,or do you think that hardly any are crook at all?How much of the time do you think you can trustthe government to do what is right?Would you say that the government is pretty much run by a f
6、ew big interests looking out for themselvesor that it is run for the benefit of all people?,General Social Survey,2000,National Opinion Research,Theoryabstract,DataConcrete,指标化：Other Examples,Literacy:The completion of six years of formal educationThose nations in which at least 50 percent of the po
7、pulation has had six years of formal education,as indicated in a publication of the United Nations,Democracy:A system of government in which public officials are selected in competitive electionsThose countries in which the second-place finishers in elections for the chief executive office has recei
8、ved at least 25 percent of the vote at least once in the past eight years,To operationalize your concepts is arbitrary,but you have to make some justification if not based on common literature or policy.,指标化：例子,Social Status,Education,Income,Occupation,Numbers of school years completed,Cross family
9、income last year,Blue collar,white collar,or professional,PoliticalParticipation,Voting,Campaign contribution,Attend political rally,“Did you vote in the last”,“Did you contribute to”,“Have you attended a”,Concept,Variable,Operational Definition,In the sample article?Communication Performance,Concep
10、tualization,Nominal Definition(Variables),Operational Definition(Indicators),Instrumentation,External Communication Performance,p.49,Reverse:从问题/数据到概念？,“How many times a week do you drink an alcoholic beverage?”1.None2.12 3.35 4.57 5.710 6.10Percentage of a nations population that is literate“I ofte
11、n feel lonely”1.agree 2.disagree“number of hours of sleep each night”“number of trips taken abroad each year by presidents”,指标与概念的不完全契合,概念,指标2,指标3,指标5,指标4,指标1,Level of Measurement,“How many times a week do you drink an alcoholic beverage?”1.None 2.12 3.35 4.57 5.710 6.10“How many times a week do you
12、 drink an alcoholic beverage?”_“Do you think you are addicted to alcohol?1.Yes2.No“I am alcoholic.”1.Strongly agree 2.Agree 3.Neutral 4.Disagree 5.Strongly Disagree,Precision/Level of Measurement,Nominal Measures（定类）exhaustive and mutual exclusive categories;none is more or less than anotherOrdinal
13、Measures（定序）can logically rank-order:with more or less of particular attributeInterval Measures（定距）How much smaller or larger;the distance between each unit on the scale must be the same;Ratios Measures（定比）Interval measures;the zero point has a true meaning(absence of the characteristic being measur
14、ed),Level of Measurement,Level of Measurement,选择测量层次,如果可能，选择定比/定距受其他因素影响变量本身的特点敏感性（如收入）信度与效度,Practices,You have data on the annual salary of 200 employees of an organization.How the data can be presented as ratio,interval,ordinal,and nominal data?,复合指数测量：什么是？,复合指数测量：为什么？,概念,指标2,指标3,指标5,指标4,指标1,例子：怎么
15、测量国家的“自由”程度？,1=Yes;0=No.,李克特量表,Likert Format(for other formats,refer to the textbook),测量的好坏？,How do you measure individuals alcohol addiction?“How many times a week do you drink an alcoholic beverage?”1.None 2.12 3.35 4.57 5.710 6.10“How many times a week do you drink an alcoholic beverage?”_“Do you
16、 think you are addicted to alcohol?1.Yes2.No“I am alcoholic.”1.Strongly agree 2.Agree 3.Neutral 4.Disagree 5.Strongly DisagreeHow many bottles of alcohol do you normally drink for a week?_How many bottles of alcohol do you normally drink for a day?,测量的准确度,To what extent are you measuring what you in
17、tended to measure?Ideal:Measurement error is 0,Measurement=Intended characteristic+Systematic error+Random errorSystematic error is durableRandom error is temporaryPre-test=Math Ability+_+_,准确度:信度,Reliability:produce same results over repeated applications.Stability and ConsistencyTest-Retest method
18、 再测信度*Two times*maturation*sensitivityAlternative format复本信度*two times*maturationSplit-Halves method(multiple measures,one concept)折半信度Sub-sample method 亚样本信度,Split-Halves,Measuring Performance measurement(PM)effectivenessOur PM information can be trustedOur PM helps managerial decisionsOur PM impro
19、ves communication between city hall and usOur PM help elected officials formulate budgetOur PM indictors reflect our management effectivenessOur PM indictors are reliableOur investment in PM is worthwhile Our PM improves productivityOur PM motivates employeesOur PM helps adjusting strategic planning
20、,准确度：效度,Validity:the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration.Face validity表面效度:Does it appear?Judgment!Content validity内容效度:Got everything in?Consensual validity共识效度:Everybody agrees!Construct validityCriterion-related validity*Pre
21、dictive validity*Concurrent validityInteritem associationDiscriminant validity,测量误差与信度、效度,Measurement=Intended characteristic+Systematic error+Random error,Systematic error is durable,affecting validity Random error is temporary,affecting more on reliability,Which of the following questions concerns
22、 reliability?What does the Scholastic Aptitude Test(SAT)really measure?Do attitude scales really tap personal feelings or just what people think investigators want to hear?Is poverty best represented by measures of low absolute income(a minimum subsistence)or low relative income(e.g.,50%of national
23、median income)?How closely does self-reported church attendance correspond to actual church attendance?Are scores on the even-numbered and odd-numbered items on this test highly correlated?,Research indicates that in recent years respondents answers to survey questions measuring racial prejudice und
24、erestimate actual racial prejudice.This underestimate is an example of _ measurement error,which affects measurement _.,random;reliability random;reliability and validity systematic;validitysystematic;reliability and validity,Systematic error would be least likely to occur with which of the followin
25、g measures?,a miscalibrated yardstick that is an inch shortan IQ test developed for English-speaking U.S.citizens that is administered to French Canadiansa question measuring child abuse that asks,“how often do you hit your child when she doesnt obey you?”scores on the multiple-choice portion of an
26、exam reports of gambling winnings on IRS tax return,Validity and Reliability,Reliability is a necessary,but insufficient,condition,for validity validity is more important,but reliability is more easily tested Think about possible errors,Low VLow R,Low VHigh R,Low VLow R,High VHigh R,提高效度与信度：减少误差,Par
27、ticipant(object who)Situational factor(where,how,when)Measurer(subject who)Instrument(what)Facial attractiveness?,提高效度与信度：减少误差,Participant(object who)客体/对象Situational factor(where,how,when)情境与程序Measurer(subject who)主体Instrument(what)工具Facial attractiveness?,提高信度的途径,访谈、试测增加同类问题/指标去掉“区分性”较低的指标,提高效度的途径,访谈、试测去掉“区分性”较低的指标多种测量方法,SPSS,学生设计的例子,
