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1、基础语法和用法,Grammar and Usage,动词,动词是表达句意的精髓，句子的时态、语态等全依靠动词来体现。动词可分为:实意动词（如：go,do,make）系动词（如：be,remain,seem,turn）助动词（do)和情态动词(must,can)对于动词的考点：主谓一致、动词形式的正确运用。,例句：,误：My father,together with some of his friends,have been there already.正：My father,together with some of his friends,has been there already.,注意
2、要点：,1.正确分析句子结构。2.找准句子的主语和谓语。3.能准确记忆和辨识动词的各种形式，尤其是不规则动词。,Simple sentence,The rain stopped.主语+谓语I love my Mom.主语+谓语+宾语 You are cute!主语+系动词+表语Tom gives me a book.主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语John told me to do that again.主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语,复合句（Compound Sentence）,When two independent clauses,or complete sentences are joi
3、ned together,they form one compound sentence.E.g.Beijing is in the North.Nanjing is in the South.Beijing is in the North and Nanjing is in the South.,复杂句（Complex Sentence）,When an independent clause and a dependent clause are joined together，they form one complex sentence.My uncle,who is seventy yea
4、rs old,works on a farm.,Compound sentence+Complex sentence,Studying English is important because a lot of jobs need people know English;moreover,learning English helps people understand other countrys culture.这是一个由 moreover 连接的复合句，前后两句都在谈论学英语的重要性，两个独立完整的句子。但第一句话中又包含了一个由because 引导的从句。,总结：谓语动词,谓语动词在一个
5、分句当中起到凝聚的作用，它能把其它各种相关成分聚合在一起来满足我们的表意需求.句子的构建必须仅仅围绕着动词这一核心，必须遵从“主谓一致”这一原则。谓语动词直接决定了一个句子的基本结构模式.,总结：非谓语动词,非谓语动词（不定式to do、现在分词V-ing、过去分词V-ed）是对谓语动词的一个很好的补充，弥补了动作表达的不足。既满足了我们对动作表达的要求，又照顾到了“一个分句中有且只有一个谓语动词或者说只有一套主谓对待机制”这么一个铁的法则。,动词的时态与助动词,助动词没有独立的语义，主要作用是协助谓语动词表示时态、语态或构成疑问式、否定式等。助动词和情态动词的共同特点是需要和其他动词搭配使用
6、才有意义，而且句子的否定式和疑问式都可通过这两类词体现。,一、have/has(现在完成时),had(过去完成时)这组助动词主要用来构成完成时态，形式为：have/has/had+过去分词如：I havent seen you for ages.She had mentioned this before.,二、bebe本身可作系动词，但在进行时中它是助动词，与现在分词搭配使用，缺一不可。如：Shes watching a football match.Hes looking for his favorite pet.此外，be和过去分词搭配构成被动语态如：The vicar was kille
7、d in a car accident.,三、do/does(一般现在时),did(一般过去时)此组助动词用于构成疑问式或否定式如：He doesnt feel like smoking at the moment.Did you meet the manager this morning?,四、will,shall,would此组助动词用于构成将来时如：He wont be able to see you until an hour later.Mary promised she would pay you a visit soon.,不定式,不定式是动词的非谓语形式，它的构成为：to+动词
8、原形（to do,to say)作宾语:I didnt expect to hear from you so soon.作主语:To work hard should be your major concern.作表语:His dream is to become a teacher.作宾补：John told me to do that again.,Infinitive(不定式),An infinitive is ordinarily preceded by to and is used as a noun,and adjective,or an adverb:To err is huma
9、n.But in some cases,infinitives omit to,as follows:,1.Just after the modal auxiliaries will/would,shall/should,can/could,may/might,must,need,dare:Who dare challenge a champion?,2.Just after some idiomatic(惯用的)phrases had better,had best(应当，最好),would rather,would sooner(宁愿),would just as soon(宁愿),mig
10、ht as well(不妨，莫如),cannot but(不得不),etc.:They cannot but accept his term.,3.In some fixed collocations(搭配)，如：make do(将就，凑合),make believe(假装),let drop(丢下),let fall【放下（吊桥等），使（帷幕）落下】,let fly(发射，猛烈攻击）hear say(据说)John let fly(攻击,发射)a torrent of(不断的)abuse(辱骂)at me.I hear say there was a heavy flood in that
11、county.,4.In the pattern have/make/let sb.do,or why(not)do sth.Or sentences beginning with rather than,sooner than:John made her tell him everything.Why not give Mary some flowers?Why argue with him?Rather than push the book back as he wanted to do,he forced himself to pick it up.,But if have/make/l
12、et sb.do is changed to the passive voice,to can not be omitted:She was made to tell him everything.,5.After the preposition except,but,if there is to do,did,does,done before the prepositions,to is omitted,otherwise to is a must:Theres nothing to do except wait still till it stops raining.Simon will
13、do anything but work on a farm.Theres no choice but to wait till it stops raining.,分词,现在分词:the man sitting behind me 过去分词:a gas composed of four chemical elements,Participles 分词,A participle acts as an adjective in the sentence and there are two forms ing(present participle),and ed(past participle):
14、,Present participle:ends in ing:literally(字面的)active or unfinished.1.If ing is the object of the verb,it often takes the subject of the main clause as its own logical subject.Joyce grudged(憎恨)having to pay such high taxes.He drank his beer and resumed(重新开始)reading his paper.,2.For some verbs excuse,
15、forgive,pardon,involve,avoid,-ing will create its own logical subject by the objective cases of noun/pronoun or the genitive nouns/possessive pronouns:They have never forgiven us going there.He approved the boys thinking I dont want to help.I couldnt deny his having made a reasonable excuse.She cant
16、 stand your smoking in her room.,3.Many verbs begin,cant bear,cease,like,love,omit,prefer,propose,start,etc,are followed by either ing or to with no or little difference in meaning,but usually for the common action ing will be used much more,while for special or specific action,to more:I dread falli
17、ng ill.I dread to think of it.I dont like watching television.Id like to swim today.,4.For verbs need,want,require,deserve,the active ing can function as the passive meaning which is similar to the passive voice of to do:This letter needs signing by the manager.=This letter needs to be signed by the
18、 manager.Your car urgently required seeing to.=Your car urgently required to be seen to.The house wants rewiring(重新布线).=The house wants to be rewired.,5.For verbs encourage,permit,allow,recommend,advise,authorize,usually ing is used as object,but if to is used,to often has its own logical subject:Th
19、ey encouraged learning English by radio and television.They encourage me to learn English by radio and television.They dont allow talking here.They dont allow us to talk here.,6.Some verbs admit,acknowledge,cannot help/resist/stand/,delay,miss,etc,are followed only by ing as objects,not by to:Carlos
20、 just missed being caught.Please pardon my disturbing you.We appreciate your inviting us to your party.I can not resist bargaining.,7.Big difference exists between ing and to for verbs try,mean,remember,forget,regret,stop,go on,etc.:Cant you remember telling me the story last night?You must remember
21、 to tell me all that.I shall never forget seeing the Great Wall.I was so busy that I forgot to see the Great Wall.,More e.g.,Your plan would mean spending hours.I didnt mean to make you angry.If you want to improve the taste,try adding some sugar.Phillip tried to answer each question by himself.,Pas
22、t Participle end in ed:literally passive or finished.,1.If ed can be used as the modifier of noun and put just before the noun,it is called Pre-modifierE.g.:a finished article,the spoken word,a closed shop,frozen food,badly-built house,2.if ed can be used as the modifier and put after the noun,it is
23、 called post-modifier.In this case,-ed will be together with other modifiers or elements and it functions as the relative clause:Vast areas of land,efficiently irrigated and fertilized(灌溉和施肥),could be converted into arable(适于耕种的)fields producing cereals(谷物).Things seen are mightier than things heard
24、.,3.ed of adjective function can be used as noun modifier,subject complement or object complement:The door remains locked.I found the door locked.I found a locked door.Specially ed as complement,the verbs mainly are see,hear,feel,find,think,make,get,have,keep:,E.g.:I saw the students assembled in th
25、e hall.He felt his eyes dazzled by the bright light.Everybody thought the battle lost.We found her greatly changed.I have my hair cut every ten days.Please keep us informed of the latest developments.,If ed can be used as the adverbial modifier,it functions as a adverbial clause:Punished,they will n
26、ot cooperate.=When/If they are punished,they will not cooperate.United,we stand;divided,we fall.=When/If we are united,we stand;when/If we are divided,we fall.,Besides,-ing also functioned as adverbial clause:Not knowing what to do,the woman telephoned the police.=Because the woman didnt know what t
27、o do,she telephoned the police.Having had two eggs and one cup of milk,the boy went out to the school.=After the boy had had two eggs and one cup of milk,he went out to the school.,5.When ed/-ing function as the relative/adverbial clause in the sentence,a logical subject should exist.In this case,th
28、e subject of the sentence is usually the logical subject of ed/-ing:Sitting at the back as we are,we cant hear a word.Jolted(袭击)by the collision(冲突),Harry suffered a sprained(扭伤)back and a broken knee.Growling(咆哮)threateningly,the gorilla(大猩猩)intimidated(威胁)the crowd.The floor invaded(被入侵)by termite
29、s(白蚁)was made of oak(橡树).,Ex.,My great-grandmother was pictured having kneaded dough in the kitchen.A No change B kneadsC kneading D was kneadingC.,Incorrect:Opening the cupboard(橱柜),a skeleton(骨架)fell out.Painted white,we like the house better.Drinking at the spring,the hunter saw a huge lion.,独立主格
30、结构,独立主格结构是介于分词和主谓句之间的非谓语形式，对于分词来讲其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致，而独立主格则在很大程度上克服了这一局限性.,独立主格的构成,主语+现在分词或过去分词The school being over,the street was full of the students.=When the school was over,the street was full of the students.,独立主格的特征,独立主格句的主语和句子主语不一致，如:His mouth filled with water,he couldnt utter a word.(独立主格)对
31、比分词句：其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致:Filling his mouth with water,he couldnt utter a word.,独立主格在句子中的作用,表示时间、条件，原因、伴随状态等如：The film being over,we had a stroll on the nearby street.(时间)Weather permitting,I will go fishing with my family.(条件)Time pressing,they had to work overtime.(原因)The leaves rustling in the breez
32、e,I roamed on the country road.(伴随),Modifier 修饰语,Modifier usually goes to“determiner+key noun”and can be many form from adjective,adverb,preposition,noun,participle,or relative clause,or appositive(同位语):I saw a strangely painted picture.A beautiful oil painting was missing.The truth that the earth i
33、s round has been evident to every astronaut.,1.By the relative position between the modifier and the key noun modified,there are two types-the pre-modifier and the post-modifier.The adjective and noun are usually pre-modifiers,while the phrases of preposition,adjective or infinitive,relative and app
34、ositive phrases are all post-modifiers:George was wearing a yellow sports shirt,light cotton slacks and open-toed sandals.The man who called here last night must have been Jeremy Taylor.,Some adjectives can be pre-or post-modifiers with change in meaning,but some no change:E.g.:the finest obtainable
35、 cloth=the finest cloth obtainableFor the combinations of some-,any-,and body,-one,-thing,their modifiers can be post-modifiers only:Is there anything easier?Anybody intelligent can do it.,2.In order for the structural balance,the relative clause and its antecedent are often not very closely related
36、,and the same with the appositive clause:The box was by the door which had contained the papers and other valuables.The story is told that he was once a wrestler(摔跤手).,3.If the antecedents are fact,truth,knowledge,idea,hope,assumption,news,suggestion,etc,usually the appositive clauses will follow:Th
37、ey had to face the fact that the nearest filling station(汽车加油站)is 30 kilometers away.The idea that my watch might be wrong did not occur to me.,4 Adjective as modifierIf there are more than one adjectives as modifiers,their word order as follows:Determinant(决定的)-descriptive(描述的)-size or old/new-colo
38、r-adjective of category(类别)-noun of category-key noun.The church(English,old,charming,towns)The towns charming old English church,5.Adverb as modifiersHe has travelled widely.I firmly believe that.Most of the adverbs are formed by suffix ly to the relative adjective,but some adverbs share the same s
39、pelling with its adjective form:We had an early breakfast.We had breakfast early.,6.Appositive as modifier同位语修饰语The appositive and its part modified are usually punctuated with comma,dash,or colon:He sent for his old friend,Bob.Half and hour later,the second diver returned with the same report-nothi
40、ng.Incorporated in humanistic program in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practices in education:standardized testing.,7.Misplaced ModifiersAcme just cleaned my rugs(地毯)last month.Acme cleaned my rugs just last month.(Just modifies last month)To plant tomatoes,it was a good growing year.I
41、t was a good growing year to plant tomatoes.,8.Dangling Constructions(悬垂结构）A dangling modifier literally hangs in the air;there is no logical word in the sentence for it to modify.Frequently it is placed close to the wrong noun or verb,causing the sentence to sound ridiculous.Incorrect:Having run ou
42、t of gas,John was late for dinner.Correct:Because the car ran out of gas,John was late for dinner.,Incorrect:Driving along the parkway,several deer were spotted.Correct:Driving along the parkway,we spotted several deer.Incorrect:After putting a bloodworm(红蚯蚓)on my book,the flounders(比目鱼)began to bit
43、e.Correct:After putting a bloodworm on my book,I found that the flounders began to bite.,Incorrect:To skate like a champion,practice is essential.Correct:To skate like a champion,one must practice.Incorrect:To make a good impression,a shirt and tie should be worn to the interview.Correct:To make a g
44、ood impression,Jeff should wear a shirt and tie to the interview.,Thank you!,Subject-verb-agreement主语动词一致,1.A verb agrees in number with its subject.UCLA is my choice.My cat,a Persian named Gus,is awake all night.A column of wounded prisoners,townspeople,and exhausted soldiers was spotted struggling
45、 over the horizon.She,her brother,and her friends from upstate have always bought tickets to the rock concert.,2.Singular/plural subjects followed by such words or phrases as along with,as well as,in addition to,together with,rather than,no less than,more than or with require singular/plural verbs:M
46、aking the beds,together with other light jobs,keeps Grandma busy until noon.The captain,as well as the coaches,was disappointed.,3.Indefinite pronouns like anybody,each,either,everyone,neither,and one are always singular,and take a singular verb,regardless of intervening words.Other indefinite prono
47、uns,like all,any,none,or some may be either singular or plural.Both,few,many,and several are always plural:,Neither of my children has an interest in music.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Each of the chapters in the book has a title.All is not lost but all of us are going.Few of the golfers
48、 were professionals.,4.Compound subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb,but an exception is a compound subject that names one person,thing or idea:The Toyota and the Ford are low on gas.Ham and eggs is a favorite breakfast.,5.In sentence that begin with there is or there are,the subject fo
49、llows the verb,and the verb must agree with it:There are many reasons for the war in the Middle East.,6.Singular subjects joined by or or nor or not onlybut alsotake a singular verb.If one subject is singular and the other plural,the verb should agree with the nearer subject:Either the vegetable or
50、the pans are creating this awful taste.Not only the switches(开关)but also the old wiring has been changed.,7.Collective nouns集合名词(bunch,committee,family,group,herd,jury,number,team)may be either singular or plural,depending upon whether the group is regarded as a unit or as individuals:The number of
