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1、Myers PSYCHOLOGY,Chapter 10Thinking and Language,Thinking,Cognitionmental activities associated with thinking,knowing,remembering,and communicating Cognitive Psychologistsstudy these mental activitiesconcept formationproblem solvingdecision makingjudgment formation,Thinking,Concept mental grouping o
2、f similar objects,events,ideas,or peoplePrototypemental image or best example of a categorymatching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category(as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird,such as a robin),Thinking,Algorithmmethodical
3、,logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problemcontrasts with the usually speedierbut also more error-prone-use of heuristics,Thinking,Heuristicsimple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficientlyusually speedier than algorithms more
4、error-prone than algorithms,Thinking,UnscrambleS P L O Y O C H Y GAlgorithmall 907,208 combinationsHeuristicthrow out all YY combinationsother heuristics?,Thinking,Insightsudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problemcontrasts with strategy-based solutionsConfirmation Biastendency t
5、o search for information that confirms ones preconceptionsFixationinability to see a problem from a new perspectiveimpediment to problem solving,The Matchstick Problem,How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?,The Three-Jugs Problem,Using jugs A,B,and C,with the capacitie
6、s shown,how would you measure out the volumes indicated?,The Candle-Mounting Problem,Using these materials,how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?,Thinking,Mental Settendency to approach a problem in a particular wayespecially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not
7、 be helpful in solving a new problem,Thinking,Functional Fixednesstendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functionsimpediment to problem solving,The Matchstick Problem,Solution to the matchstick problem,The Three-Jugs Problem,Solution:a)All seven problems can be solved by the equati
8、on shown in(a):B-A-2C=desired volume.b)But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7,such as A-C for problem 6.,The Candle-Mounting Problem,Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container,Heuristics,Representativeness Heuristicjudging the likelihood of th
9、ings in terms of how well they seem to represent,or match,particular prototypesmay lead one to ignore other relevant information,Heuristics,Availability Heuristicestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memoryif instances come readily to mind(perhaps because of their vividn
10、ess),we presume such events are commonExample:airplane crash,Thinking,Overconfidencetendency to be more confident than correct tendency to overestimate the accuracy of ones beliefs and judgments,Thinking,Framingthe way an issue is posedhow an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and ju
11、dgmentsExample:What is the best way to market ground beef-as 25%fat or 75%lean?,Thinking,Belief Biasthe tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoningsometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalidBelief Perseveranceclinging to ones initial co
12、nceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited,Artificial Intelligence,Artificial Intelligencedesigning and programming computer systemsto do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes intuitive reasoninglearningunderstanding language,Artificial Intelligence,Com
13、puter Neural Networkscomputer circuits that mimic the brains interconnected neural cellsperforming taskslearning to recognize visual patternslearning to recognize smells,Language,Languageour spoken,written,or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaningPhonemein a spoken languag
14、e,the smallest distinctive sound unit,Language,Morphemein a language,the smallest unit that carries meaningmay be a word or a part of a word(such as a prefix)Grammara system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others,Language,Semanticsthe set of rules by which w
15、e derive meaning from morphemes,words,and sentences in a given languagealso,the study of meaningSyntaxthe rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language,Language,We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the worlds languages,Language,Babbling Stagebegin
16、ning at 3 to 4 monthsthe stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household languageOne-Word Stagefrom about age 1 to 2the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words,Language,Two-Word Stagebeginn
17、ing about age 2the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statementsTelegraphic Speechearly speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-“go car”-using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting“auxiliary”words,Language,Language,Genes design the mechanisms for
18、a language,and experience activates them as it modifies the brain,Language,New language learning gets harder with age,Language,Linguistic DeterminismWhorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we think,Language,The interplay of thought and language,Animal Thinking and Language,The straight-line part of the dance points in the direction of a nectar source,relative to the sun,Animal Thinking and Language,Gestured Communication,Animal Thinking and Language,Is this really language?,
