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1、Part Two:Paragraph Writing,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph 1.段落的主题与主题句2.段落的扩展3.段落的结尾Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns1.列举法(Listing)2.举例法(Exemplification)3.时空顺序法(Time and Space Sequence)4.因果分析法(Cause and Effect)5.比较对照法(Comparison&Contrast)6.分类法(Classification),.段落的主题与主题句,II.段落的扩展,III.段落的结
2、尾,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,The Structure of a Paragraph,.段落的主题与主题句,1.段落的主题,2.段落的主题句,Back,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,1.段落的主题,通常一篇文章只有一个中心思想，这个中心思想可以分为几个主题，每个主题由一个段落来完成。段落的组成通常包含三个要素：主题句(topic sentence)、扩展句(supporting sentence)和结尾句(concluding sentence)。,Back,Chapter One:T
3、he Structure of a Paragraph,.段落的主题与主题句,一个段落只表达一个主题思想（主题句）,一个段落内的其它句子（扩展句）必须从属于这一思想，一个段落通常还有一个结尾局与主题句相呼应，这就是段落的统一性(The Unity of a Paragraph)。不同的主题思想应放在不同的段落中表达，否则容易枝杈横生，使人不得要领。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,例如：主题句：Beijing is famous for its temperate climate,its large population,and it
4、s rapid industrial development.,该主题句有三个不同的观点揉在一起，如果作为一个段落的主题句则不符合要求，该主题句可分解为三个主题句，由三个段落分别来完成。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,请看下面的段落有什么问题：My name is Roseanna,and I like to keep physically fit.I used to weigh two hundred pounds,but I joined the YMCA（Young mens Christian Association 基督教
5、青年会）for an exercise class and diet program.In one year I lost eighty pounds.I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame（身躯）again.I bought two new suitcases last week.Every day I practice jogging three miles,swimming fifteen laps,lifting twenty-pound weights and p
6、laying tennis for one hour.My mother was a premature baby.,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,本段的主题句是“I like to keep physically fit”，段中所有的句子应围绕这一主题。但段中有两个irrelevant sentences，一个是I bought two new suitcases last week，另一个是My mother was a premature（早产的的）baby。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Pa
7、ragraph,Back,主题句是一个段落中最具概括性的句子。一般包含两个基本内容：1）本段要讨论的中心人物或事物即主题词；2）作者对这个中心人物或事物的态度、观点或见解即扩展范围或关键词。主题句既不能过于概括，也不能过于具体。主题句过于概括（即过于笼统或题目太大），很难用几句话说清楚，通常会因为得不到应有的充实而显得空泛无力，从而造成不能有效地表达主题思想。主题句过于具体（即缺乏概括性的观点），则无法展开段落，作者的思想就没有发挥的余地，容易造成对一个意思的重复描述。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,2.段落的主题句,Back,例如主题句：“
8、American food is terrible”和“Pollution is a serious problem”就过于概括；而主题句：“He speaks English”和“I bought a car last week”就过于具体。主题句可放在句首、句中和句尾。主题句放在句首是一种好的写作方法，可以时刻提醒作者不要跑题，而且便于读者阅读理解。主题句放在句中，对段落的组织较困难，一般用在记叙和描述文体中。主题句放在句尾通常是段落的开始列举事例或事实，最后总结归纳，引出段落的主题思想。有时作者为强调起见，在段落的开头点明了主题，结尾又会重复主题，不过不是简单的重复，而是在意思上与开头相
9、呼应，或者对段落内容进行总结。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,其次，一个段落必须有若干扩展句，使主题思想得到充分展开，从而给读者一个完整的感觉，这就是段落的完整性(The Integrity of a Paragraph)。扩展句和主题句之间，一要形成意义的相关性即所有的扩展句都必须是主题句的延伸或证明，对主题句起支持的作用；二要具有逻辑的合理性即句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑，从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅，这就是段落的连贯性(The Coherence of a Paragraph)。,Chapter One:The Stru
10、cture of a Paragraph,Back,II.段落的扩展,在一个段落中，即使所有的句子意思都清楚，并且逻辑顺序排列正确，但是如果缺乏句与句之间的恰当的过渡，整个段落的连贯性仍会受到影响。一般使用合适的过渡词语来加强句与句之间的衔接或连贯。一个段落通常由“启”、“承”、“转”、“合”这样的一些环节构成，也就是说要正确使用启、承、转、合的词或词组，这样的段落才会既有统一性、完整性，又有连贯性。下面是一些常用的“启、承、转、合”过渡词语：,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,1.“启”即开启，开始，引出主题句或引导第一个扩展句,Ch
11、apter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,1.“启”即开启，开始，引出主题句或引导第一个扩展句,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,2.“承”即承接，用来承接主题句或第一个扩展句,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,3.“转”即转折，用来表示语气的转折,Ch
12、apter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,3.“转”即转折，用来表示语气的转折,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,4.“合”即合拢，总结，表示段落的结束,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,例如：Many students have difficulty taking test.As a result,they get poor grades o
13、n their quizzes.They must,therefore,work harder in class to communicate their understanding of the course.In addition,they usually devote great periods of time to writing assignments in the hope that these assignments will raise their averages.Finally,many offer to do extra assignments during vocati
14、ons in an effort to raise their grades.The effects of doing poorly on even one quiz can be stressful to most students.在本段落中，作者使用了一系列的合适的过渡词语使得文章衔接自然、字句通顺、内容连贯。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,结尾句通常是对段落的归纳总结和概括，也可以是对主题加以评论。在论述性较强的议论文体中，一般都有结尾句。例如：1)For the past ten years,traffic jams in
15、 Beijing have been more and more serious.(2)There are many reasons but in general they come down to three main causes.(3)First,with the rapid development of economy in Beijing,too many transportation tools are brought into use,especially taxis and private cars which count for a remarkable number of
16、traffic jams.,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,III.段落的结尾,Back,(4)Next,the traffic system in Beijing was established mainly in the 1940s.the roads are still narrow that they can not bear such heavy traffic.(5)The final reason is that the population of Beijing has been increasing so fast that
17、there are many pedestrians on the streets.(6)From the foregoing,it is clear that the traffic system in Beijing must be re-established as soon as possible.分析上面段落，我们可以看出：(1)是引入句，（2）是主题句，（3）（4）（5）是扩展句，（6）是结尾句。,Chapter One:The Structure of a Paragraph,Back,方法,2.举例法(Exemplification),1.列举法(Listing),3.时空顺序
18、法(Time and Space Sequence),4.因果分析法(Cause and Effect),6.分类法(Classification),5.比较对照法(Comparison&Contrast),段落的展开，有很多方法和模式，下面介绍最常用的几种：,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,1 列举法(Listing)A general statement supported by specific details or reasons,列举法是指在主题句之后列举一些足以支持主题句观点的具体细节。这种具体细节一般是事实描述、数据、例子等。一般来讲，所
19、列举的具体细节按照重要性递增的顺序排列。列举法常常和举例法结合起来使用。我们来看看下面这个用列举法展开的段落：,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,Chatting Online My Most Rewarding Experience,(1)As one of my most rewarding experiences,chatting online has brought a lot of benefits to my life.(2)For one thing,it helps me avoid nervousness and embarr
20、assment I used to feel in regular talks.(3)Unlike the face-to-face conversation,it offers me much freedom in time to think out my ideas and prepare them well before posting them on the screen.(4)For another,it adds no little to the improvement of my English.,点击继续,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns
21、,Back,(5)Through online chatting,I have more chances to speak with native speakers,thus bathing myself in the sea of genuine English.(6)The most valuable result of chatting online is that it gives me insights into other cultures and keeps my mind open to better ways of seeing things.(7)Now I tend to
22、 see things from a more objective perspective.8)In short,there is not anything in my free time that is more beneficial than chatting online.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,根据本段的主题句（1）句，作者列举了三个理由（2）、（4）、（6）句，分别由for one thing,for another,the most valuable result 等连接词语引出，并分别给予必要的进一步的阐述（3）、（5
23、）、（7）句（二级扩展），使得该段条理清楚、层次分明、内容连贯。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,常用于列举法段落的过渡词有以下几组。一般要相互呼应，不混用。1.First,second,third,last 2.firstly,secondly,.thirdly,finally 3.the first,the second,the third,the last 4.to begin with/to start with/in the first place,then/next/in addition(to)/besides/also/mor
24、eover,furthermore/what is more,.finally 运用列举法展开段落的写作模式如下：Topic sentenceDetail 1Detail 2,Detail 3,Concluding sentence.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,Homework:Marking up a Book is Indispensable to Reading,参考范文：Why is marking up a book indispensable（必不可少的）to reading?First,it keeps you awake
25、.I dont mean merely conscious;I mean wide awake.In the second place,reading,if it is active,is thinking,and thinking tends to express itself in words,spoken or written.The marked book is usually the thought-through book.Finally,written helps you remember the thoughts you had,or the thoughts the auth
26、or expressed.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,2.举例法(Exemplification)A general statement supported by some examples,作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,我们来看看下面这个用举例法展开的段落：,There are many
27、different forms of exercises to suit different tastes.For example,those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games.For another example,if they prefer to exercise alone,they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening.Besides,people can go swimming in the summer and go ska
28、ting in the winter.In short,no matter what their interests are,people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句，分别由连接词for example,for another example 和 besides引出，最后由 In short引导的结尾句总结全段内容。,常用于举例法段落的句型、句式和词语有：For example/i
29、nstance,There are many examples to show that This can be illustrated/shown by the following examples/instances.One example is.Another example is An example of this is/involves,运用举例法展开段落的写作模式如下：Topic sentenceone or more examplesConcluding sentence.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,Home work:
30、Knowing A foreign Language is Helpful,参考范文：Knowing a foreign language is helpful.I have got a better understanding of this with my own experience.Yesterday morning,I went to the bookstore to buy some books.When I got there,I saw a foreign lady talking to a salesgirl.But the salesgirl could not under
31、stand what she was saying.I went up to them.She told me she needed a pocket English-Chinese dictionary.So I told the salesgirl what the foreigner wanted to buy.In a moment the foreign lady got the dictionary and she was very happy.Both she and the salesgirl thanked me a lot.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragr
32、aph Patterns,Back,Home work:Knowing A foreign Language is Helpful,参考范文：Knowing a foreign language is helpful.Firstly,if you know a foreign language you can communicate with its native speakers thus enabling you to make a lot more friends.Secondly,it will help you to know about another culture and op
33、en your mind to new was of seeing things.Thirdly,it may offer you more chances to find a good job in a joint venture enterprise or an foreign-funded enterprise.So,knowing a foreign language is very important,we college students must work hard to master a foreign language.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph
34、 Patterns,Back,3.时空顺序法(Time and Space Sequence)To describe a series of actions or a situation according to the time or space sequence,时空顺序法是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次、分步骤地表达主题的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,例如：Yesterday wa
35、s one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong.First,I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work.Then,I didnt read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss.During the coffee break,I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt.At lunch ti
36、me,I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it.After lunch,my boss was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting.Then I didnt notice a sign on a door that said Wet Paint and so I spoilt my jacket too.When I got home I couldnt get into my flat because I had left my key in my office
37、.So I broke a window to get in and cut my hand.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,本段采用的是时间顺序法，根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者按时间顺序列举了他所做的8件错事，分别由first,then,during the coffee break,after lunch等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、内容连贯。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,再看一例：In the flat opposit
38、e,a woman heard the noise outside.When she looked out through the window,she discovered that her neighbor was threatened by someone.She immediately called the police station.In answer to the call,a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly.Three policemen went inside the flat at on
39、ce,and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,本段是按照事物发展的空间和先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。作者采用了许多表示空间位置的词汇，如：In the flat opposite,outside,lookout through the window等等，使读者仿佛身临其境。,常用于时间顺序法段落的过渡连接词有：first,at the beginning,to start w
40、ith,after that,later,then,afterwards,in the end,finally等可以表示时间先后的词汇。,常用于空间顺序法段落的过渡连接词有：from here,inside,out of,in front of,behind,at the back of,next to,beside,on,over,above,under,beneath,beyond,on the right/left-hand side,on the corner,on the opposite side of,between等可以表示空间位置的词汇。,Chapter Two:Basic
41、Paragraph Patterns,Back,Homework:My Dormitory is a Large,Spacious and Comfortable Room with Four Beds,参考范文：My dormitory is a large,spacious and comfortable room with four beds.As you walk into the room,you are faced with a large window on the southern side of the room.Below the window is a large des
42、k on which there is a clock,a telephone and a computer.Around the desk are four chairs for us to sit on during our study.The four beds are located in the four corners of the room.Between the two beds on the east side of the room is a large wardrobe for hanging clothes and storing bedding.Opposite to
43、 it is a large bookcase with neatly arranged books.,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,4.因果分析法(Cause and Effect)To analyze the causes of sth or the effects of sth,因果分析法是通过分析事物的因果关系来展开段落。我们可以先提出某种现象，然后分析导致这种现象的原因，这就是一果多因（例1）；也可以先给出原因，然后再说明原因导致的结果，这就是一因多果（例2）。运用因果分析法展开段落最好把主题句放在句首，即一果或一因放在开头。,C
44、hapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,例 1:(1)Now theres a large gap between rich and poor in China.(2)The cause lies in three aspects.(3)First the gap is the result of the economic reform.(4)Some become millionaires by working hard and seizing the opportunities.(5)Meanwhile the slow development i
45、n agriculture and the closedown of many state-owned enterprises hinder the farmers and workers from greatly raising their living standards.(6)Second,the current distribution of income is not scientific enough,thus widening the income difference.(7)Third,while most make money honestly,there are some
46、dishonest businessmen and government agents who have accumulated large fortunes through illegal ways.（一果多因）此段中，（1）是引导句，（2）是主题句，（3）、（6）、（7）是扩展句，（4）、（5）句是（3）句的二级扩展句。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,例 2：(1)Whenever we turn on TV,we will see advertisements.(2)Advertisements are one of the most
47、 frustrating parts of watching television.(3)In the first place,the advertisements waste time.(4)For instance,in order to see a 90-minute movie,we have to spend another 20 to 30 more minutes watching advertisements.(5)In the second place,the advertisements interrupt the viewers.(6)For example,the vi
48、ewers may forget the plot of a show during the advertisements.(7)In the third place,they make people under constant economic pressure.(8)The ads make many products look more attractive than they really are.(9)They always make people spend more than they can afford.(10)Since ads could not disappear f
49、rom TV screen,the television viewers must be aware and critical of the advertisements in order to endure them.（一因多果）此段中，（1）是引导句，（2）是主题句，（3）、（5）、（7）是扩展句，（4）、（6）、（8）、（9）分别是（3）、（5）、（7）句的二级扩展句，（10）是结尾句。,Chapter Two:Basic Paragraph Patterns,Back,试分析上述段落的展开方式和因果关系。因和果是相对而言的，有时一个原因导致的结果又会成为导致另一种结果的原因，从而形成一
50、系列的因果关系。请看下例：As the price of everything increases,workers demand higher wages to keep up with rising costs.This can produces further increases in prices or a decreased demand for manufactured goods,or both.Since production tries to keep pace with demand,decreased demand is followed by decreased prod
