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1、第二课 孔 德 实证主义社会学的创始人,August Comte and his positivism sociology,(1798-1857),(1798-1857),本章学习要点(main points),“实证”一词的含义(what is“positivism”)“三阶段论”的主要思想(the main points of the three stages)社会静力学的基本内容 The contents of the social statics社会动力学的基本内容 The contents of the social dynamics社会学的研究方法 The methods abou
2、t the sociology,Biographical Sketch and Works,In 1798,Auguste Comte was born in Montpelier,France.his parents were middle class and his father was a tax collector of the local agent.In 1812,he became a student of the Ecole Polytechnique(巴黎综合技术学校).but he and his whole class were dismissed from the Sc
3、hool for their rebelliousness and their political ideas in 1816.In 1817 he became a secretary and“adopted son”to Claude Henri Saint-Simon.in 1824 they had a raging out because Comte believed that Saint-Simon wanted to omit his name from one of his contributions.In 1825,He married Caroline Massin(卡罗列
4、娜马森),in 1842 they divorced.In 1826,he was begaining to concoct(编造)the Positivism philosophy scheme.In 1830,he worked on the six-volume work for which he is best known,Cours de Philosophic Positive,which was finally published in its entirety in 1842.In 1844,he made friendship with a lady named 克洛蒂尔德I
5、n 1851,he had completed the four-volume Systeme de Politique Positive.in 1857,he was died.,一、“实证”一词的含义(what is“positivism”),所谓“实证的”,就是要探寻自然界和人类社会的永恒不变的规律Positivism:it is usually used to mean the search for invariant laws of both the natural and the social world.这种规律可以通过对人类社会的经验调查中获得,也可来自于对世界的理论思考The
6、 invariable laws can be derived from doing research on the social world or from theorizing about the world.,学科的排位(hierarchy of the sciences),SociologyBiology ChemistryPhysicsAstronomymathematics,社会学生物学化学物理学天文学数学,二、三阶段论(three stages),1.神学阶段(The Theological Stage)2.形而上学阶段(The Metaphysical Stage)3.实证阶段
7、(The Positivistic Stage),1.The Theological Stage(before 13c),1、神学阶段世界的根源是什么?(最低阶段)在这个阶段,神学占统治地位,人类解释各种现象的存在,都归因于超自然的存在物。在这一阶段人类智力的特征是:自由幻想,寻找事物现象的根源,探索万物的内在本质,追究事物的最后原因,即要求获得绝对的知识In this stage,the human mind is searching for the essential nature of things,particularly their origin(where do they come
8、 from?)and their purpose(why do they exist?).What this comes down to is the search for absolute knowledge,it is assumed that all phenomena are created,regulated,and given their purposes by supernatural forces(超自然的存在物)or beings(gods).,2.The Metaphysical Stage(13c-18c),2、形而上学阶段寻找事物背后的物质或本性(过渡阶段)在这个阶段,
9、用形而上学(超经验)的抽象概念代替了超自然的“神力”,用形而上学来解释一切,以求获得关于事物的本质的绝对知识。It is a transitional stage between the preceding theological stage and the ensuing positivistic stage.In the metaphysical stage,abstract forces(抽象力量)replace supernatural beings as the explanation for the original causes and purposes of things in
10、 the world.Mysterious forces such as“nature”are invoked to explain why things are the way they are.(认为大自然这样的抽象的力量为万事万物的基础),3.The Positivistic Stage(after 18c),3、实证阶段寻找现象之间的规律(最高阶段)在这个阶段,人们不再以虚构的超自然的主体或抽象的原则来解释经验现象,“不再探索宇宙的起源和目的,不再求知各种现象的内在原因”。而把知识“局限在经验事实的范围内”,以“发现现象的实际规律”,即发现它们的先后不变的关系和相似关系。因此,这一阶段
11、的科学知识都是经验的、实证的知识。In this stage,people look for the invariable natural laws that govern all phenomena(获得支配各种现象的内在规律)the search for these laws involves both doing empirical research and theorizing.,三、社会静力学(Social Statics)和 社会动力学(Social Dynamics),孔德把社会学定义为研究社会秩序和社会进步的科学。按照生物学区分为解剖学和生理学的类比,孔德把社会学区分为社会静力
12、学和社会动力学两部分。社会静力学是孔德关于人类社会自发秩序的一般理论,而社会动力学则是关于人类自然进步的一般理论。,(一)社会静力学(Social Statics),Comte defines the sociological study of social statics as“the investigation of the laws of action and reaction of the different parts of the social system”(即暂时不考虑社会系统的基本运动,去研究该系统的各个组成部分的作用和反作用.)Comte developed a persp
13、ective on the parts(or structures)of society,the way in which they function,and their relationship to the larger social system.Comte also saw the parts and the whole of the social system in a state of harmony.the idea of harmony was later transformed by structural functionalists into the concept of
14、equilibrium.,社会的组成元素(the elements of society),There are three factors in his social statics:1.Individual(个体)the individual as imperfect,dominated by“lower”forms of egoism rather than“higher”,more social forms of altruism.In fact,Comte sees this dominance of egoism as rooted in the brain,which is vie
15、wed as having both egoistic and altruistic regions.2.Family(家庭)it is the family that must play a crucial role in the control of egoism impulses and the emergence of individual altruism the language3.Social integration the division of labor the religion,(二)社会动力学(Social Dynamics),四、社会学研究方法(Four basic
16、methods),Comte explicitly identified four basic methods for sociologyfour basic ways of doing social research in order to gain empirical knowledge of the real social world.1、观察法(observation)2、实验法(experiment)3、比较法(comparison)4、历史法(historical research),1、观察法(observation),所谓观察,它必须在一定的理论指导下进行,而不是无目的地搜集杂
17、乱的事实,那些孤立的、偶然的事实,什么也说明不了,因而是毫无价值的。他一再强调,只有在科学的理论指导下,才能获得有价值的观察结果。Observations should be directed by some theory,and when made,they should be connected to some law.Direction observation and indirection observation,2、实验法(experiment),他将实验划分为直接实验和间接实验两种方法。直接实验法,指在为特定研究目的而人为创造的条件的影响下对现象的变化进行观察的方法,此法在自然科学
18、中广为运用,但在社会学中却受种种因素限制难以有效运用。社会学主要运用的是间接实验法,即社会研究者不是在人为的条件下,而是利用社会本身的特殊状况向人们提供的机会来进行社会研究的方法。direction experiment and the indirection experiment This method is better suited to the other sciences than it is to sociology.it is obviously virtually impossible to interfere with,and to attempt to control,so
19、cial phenomena.,3、比较法(comparison),对社会学来说,更重要的是在人类内部进行比较研究,通过将同时居住在世界各地的各族人民的生活加以比较,以发现社会存在和发展的一般规律。Three subtypes.First,we can compare humans to lower animal societies.Second,we can compare societies in different parts of the world.Third,we can compare the different stages of societies over time.(pa
20、rticularly important),4、历史法(historical research),他认为,历史法是社会学研究的专门方法,它最适合对社会现象的考察。孔德所谓的历史法,是在广泛观察社会事实的基础上,通过综合、归纳,找出人类生活各种事件在发展上的必然联系,推断哪些因素对人类文明发展产生真正的影响,以便使人们的社会感情顺乎自然地表达出来。换言之,历史法是从事物的先后和连续性上考察社会现象和状态的一种方法,注重于事物的发展过程正是历史方法的基本特点。Most important method in sociology.Comte wrote:“necessity of historica
21、l studies as the foundation of sociological speculation”,五、评价(a critical assessment),、Positive Contributions 2、Weaknesses,1、优点(Positive contributions),通过本章以上各节有关孔德生平、哲学思想以及社会学主要理论观点和方法论的论述,笔者认为,作为古典社会学家的孔德对社会学及其理论主要有以下几方面的重大贡献:第一,他在19世纪前期首先提出人们应当象对自然界那样以科学的态度、科学的方法来研究和分析人类社会、社会现象,找出其规律性并由此创立了社会学这样一门
22、以社会为研究对象的新科学门类。孔德因此赢得了“社会学之父”的称誉乃是当之无愧的第二,孔德关于科学地研究实实在在的社会的主张,使人类对社会的探索彻底脱离了孔德以前的若干思想家的社会哲学范畴。这是人类认识史上的一大飞跃。,第三,孔德不仅开创社会学这门新科学,而且提出一整套社会学的理论观点以及社会研究的方法论原则。孔德在社会学理论和方法论方面的初次尝试,为后来社会学家的理论研究探索提供了基础与动力。第四,孔德提出的社会秩序与社会变迁问题(即社会静力学和社会动力学理论)以及他对人类行动的哲学解释,成为自他以来社会学理论探讨的三大主题。孔德的这一开拓性贡献功不可没。此外,他关于社会有机整体论的思想已成为
23、当代西方主流派理论的功能主义的直接来源之一。孔德提出的社会研究方法论原则以及一些具体的方法(尽管已有了重大改进,但至今在社会学经验研究领域广泛应用)。,2、局限性(Basic weakness in Comtes theory),首先,孔德以实证哲学观将人类社会的变迁和进步视为人性即情感、智力、行动发展的结果,因此带有明显的唯心主义倾向,按照这一哲学观,孔德对社会现象的分析与研究很难反映社会的客观规律。其次,孔德的政治观点也带有明显的保守主义色彩,因此必然会影响他的社会学理论观点。例如,维持现有社会的和谐、稳定与秩序就是他研究社会的基本出发点和核心,所以孔德反对社会革命,主张社会改良。社会进步
24、与变迁虽然是他研究的主题之一,但这种进步与变迁仅仅是建立在秩序基础上的。这一保守的社会政治思想阻碍了孔德对阶级的分化对立与冲突,以及社会制度、政治制度及其变革进行科学的合理的研究与分析,因而很难作出正确的结论。,最后,孔德从早期实证主义的科学哲学倡导者跌落到了晚年时期的人道宗教的鼓吹人。虽然他一再声称“我的实证主义从真正意义上讲就是一种宗教。”但是他以宗教代替科学最终会妨碍他对社会的研究可惜他对这一点并未觉悟。尽管如此,我们认为,孔德开创的社会学及其理论的影响与功绩将载人社会学发展的史册。,Learning objectives,After reading this chapter,stude
25、nts should be able to:1.define Comtes version of positivism,identify his four major methodologies;2.identify and define Comtes three stages,as well as the law of the three stages;3.discuss Comtes conception of sociology;4.discuss Comtes notion of order and progress,as well as their relationship to t
26、he law of the three stages;,5.distinguish between social statics and social dynamics;6.identify the role of the individual in Comtes sociology and contrast egoism and altruism;7.discuss Comtes views on the roles of the family,religion,the division of labor,and language,as well as their effects on individuals;8.identify Comtes contributions to contemporary sociology.,