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1、1,Chapter 6 Grammar and Text,6.1 Introduction,Text(语篇),a chunk of lnguage spoken or written for communication in actual circumstances.,A text is sentences of any length put together,with texture.Texture(语篇织体)is what binds a text together,intrinsically and contextually.,2,This chapter explores how gr
2、ammar is related to text.-Functional GrammarM.A.K.HallidayMichael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday(often M.A.K.Halliday)(born 1925)is a British linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model,the systemic functional grammar(which also goes by the name of systemic functional linguistic
3、s SFL).,3,Functional Grammar:basic viewsLanguage is the product of social activities.Language is what it is because it has to serve certain social functions.Social demands on L has helped to shape its structure.韩礼德认为语言的性质决定人们对语言的要求，即语言所必须完成的功能。尽管这种功能千变万化，我们可以把它们归纳为若干个有限的抽象的功能，这就是“纯理功能”或“元功能”，这是种种语言用
4、途所固有的。纯理论功能包括三方面：Three Metafunctions:Ideational function（概念功能）Interpersonal function（人际功能）Textual function（语篇功能）,4,Ideational function（概念功能）:to convey new information unknown to the hearer.语言是对存在于主客观世界的过程和事物的反映，这是“经验”功能。逻辑功能以表现为并列关系和从属关系的线性的循环结构的形式出现。由于两者都是建立于说话人对外部世界和内心世界的经验，与其它功能相比较是中性的，因而可统称为“概念”
5、功能。“观察者”的功能（指说话人对主客观世界的观察）,5,Interpersonal function（人际功能）:to express social and personal relations;the ways speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act.语言是社会人有意义的活动，是做事的手段，是动作，因此它的功能之一必然是反映人与人之间的关系，如反映说话人和听话人之间的社会地位和亲疏关系。这个纯理功能称为“人际”功能。“闯入者”的功能，（指向他人灌输自己的思想）,6,Textual function（语
6、篇功能）:to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.实际使用中的语言的基本单位不是词或句这样的语法单位，而是表达相对完整思想的语篇。上述两种功能部分最后要由说话人把它们组织成语篇才能实现。这就是“语篇”功能。语篇功能满足了使实际应用中的语言前后相关联的要求，使实际的上下文具备一定的结构，从而使实际的篇章区别于语法或者词典中一个个孤立的条
7、目。它提供了一系列潜在的可用的意义，使语言结构的组成成为可能。“相关”功能（指语篇的完整性、一致性和衔接性）。,7,An example,（1）John saw a handbag in a field.John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed in a handbag as lost property.When John handed a handbag as lost property,John went home.
8、（2）John saw a handbag in a field.He walked across the field and picked up the handbag.He took the handbag to the police station and handed it in as lost property.When he had done this，he went home.,8,Thematic structureTextual function Information structureCohesion,9,6.2 Theme and Textual functionCom
9、pare:A halfpenny is the smallest English coin.The smallest English coin is a halfpenny.Theme is the point of departure in a sentence.It is the element which serves to relate the message of the sentence to the unfolding text.The rest of the clause is the Rheme.Theme+Rheme,10,Different themes show the
10、 different concerns of the writer,e.g.:(1)The butcher knife was found in the garden by the police.(by who)(2)The police found the butcher knife in the garden.(where)(3)In the garden the police found the butcher knife.(what),11,Thematic progression(主位推进模式),Theme has a function of organizing the infor
11、mation into a text.Theme is concerned with the organization of information within individual clause and,through this,with the organization of the larger text.,Danes(1974)identified a number of models of Thematic progression:,The continuous or constant theme pattern The linear theme pattern The split
12、 rheme pattern,12,The continuous or constant theme pattern,They are basically timid or self-conscious.They lack frankness and are usually very sensitive but hate to admit it.They are motivated either by great ambition or extreme laziness.,A common theme shard by each clause and this theme equates wi
13、th GIVEN information.,13,(2)The linear theme pattern The milk goes first to a clarifier.The clarfier is a machine for applying centrifugal force.It consists of a rapidly revolving bowl containing several discs.The discs separate the milk into thin streams.The streams of milk then pass into a preheat
14、er.The preheater,14,(3)The split rheme patternFor me,teaching is a red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking stomach profession.Red eye because I never fell ready to teach,no matter how.Sweaty-palm because Im always nervous before I walk into that classroom.Sinking stomach,because I walk out of the classroom an h
15、our later and convinced that I was even more boring than usual.,15,Types of Themes:According to the complexity,Halliday classifies Theme into three kinds:simple Theme,multiple Theme and clausal Theme.Halliday gives a detailed analysis on English thematic structure.Study the examples on P116-7.,16,Ex
16、amples of simple Theme,17,6.3 Information StructureAn information unit consists of NEW and GIVEN information;the new being obligatory and the given being optional.GIVENand NEW informationThe system of information uses intonation to highlight what is particularly newsworthy in the message.Its a FINE
17、day/and we can have an OUTing/tone group-the unit of informationcontaining one,and only one,TONIC SYLLABLE(调核音节)，to focus the new information in the tone group.,18,Two kinds of rhythm in language:Syllable Timing-the timing of all syllables tends to be equal,regardless of their stress.(Chinese)Foot T
18、iming(or:Stress Timing)-in normal continuous speech,the length of time between stressed syllables is similar however many other(relatively less accented syllables)occur in between.(English),Foot(音步)starts with a stressed syllable,in the tone group,and ends before the next stressed syllable.,19,A ran
19、k scale:Tone group Foot SyllablePhonemePhone Thegirl overtherewho is inredused to be our monitor.,See P119 of your coursebook,20,The textual system of information is complementary to theme:in the default case,the theme of the clause falls within the GIVEN information and the NEW assigned by that sys
20、tem falls within the rheme.In default case,theme and given information precede rhemes and new information.,21,6.4 CohesionWhat binds a text together?Cohesion(衔接)-the elements that bind a text together or make a pile of sentences a text or an effective component of a text.,22,Four kinds of cohesive d
21、evices in English:Reference Substitution and EllipsisConjunctionLexical cohesion,23,Reference(co-referentiality)-refers to how the writer/speaker introduces participants(people,place and things)and then keep track of them once they enter the text.e.g.He won a first prize and with the money he bought
22、 a new computer which brought him a lot of fun.,24,Substitution and Ellipsis(co-classification)Types of substitution:Nominal:one,ones,sameVerbal:doClausal:so,notYou think Joan already knows?I think everybody does.These biscuits are stale.-Get some fresh ones.Theyve failed,then?-I regret so.Ellipsis:
23、Joan bought some carnations,and Cathy some sweet peas.,25,Conjunction/conjunctive adjunctse.g.He was very sick.In fact,he needed a blood transfusion.(2)He is a headache.I mean he never gets along with his colleagues.(3)He worked very hard.As a result,he came out first in the final exam.,26,Four clas
24、ses of cohesive conjunction(Halliday&Hasan,1976.Cohesion in English.London:Longman.):Additive:and,and also,furthermore,in addition,by the way,that is,I mean,for instance,likewise,on the other hand,by contrast etc.Adversative:yet,though,but,neverthless,despite this,in fact,on th other hand,instead,on
25、 the contrary,at least,rather,in any case,at any rate,whichever way it is etc.Causal:so,hence,consequently,therefore,for this reason,as a result,for,because,it follows,to this end,in that case,that being so,under the circumstances,in this respect,aside from this etc.Temporal:then,next,at the same ti
26、me,at firstin the end,on another occasion,in conclusion,up to now,hitherto,to sum up,to return to the point etc.,27,Lexical cohesion(co-extension)refers to the cohesive effect of the use of lexical items in texts where the choice of an item is closely related to the choices of other items,in terms o
27、f synonymsy,near-synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy and collocation etc.Types of lexical cohesion Referential relationReiteration same word(repetition)same referentsynonyms(or near-syn)inclusivesuperordinate exclusivegeneral word unrelated2.Collocation,28,Study the example:Sing a song of sixpence,a pocket f
28、ull of rye,Four-and-twenty blackbirds baked in a pie,When the pie was opened,the birds began to sing,Wasnt that a dainty dish to set before a king?The king was in his counting-house,counting out his money,The queen was in the parlour,eating bread and honey,The maid was in th garden,hanging out the colthes,Along came a blackbird and pecked off her nose.,29,29,
