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1、,ARGUMENTATION,Introduction of,CONTENTS目录,1.Definition,2.Principles and Conventions,3.Argument structures,4.Strategy,6.An example,5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,Argumentation is analyzed,review of a problem or something,that a style of their own point of view,position,attitude,v
2、iews and propositions.,Examples of argumentation writing are:,2.Principles and Conventions,A good argumentation should abide by the following conventions:,Follow the rules of reason,Three kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experience,Evidence must be presented
3、 logically,Three types of appeals:ethos(喻德）,logos（喻理）,pathos（喻情）,1,4,A well-defined,controversial issue,A clear position taken by the writer,A convincing argument,2,3,A reasonable tone,A good argumentation should include:,CONTENTS目录,1.Definition,2.Principles and Conventions,3.Argument structures,4.S
4、trategy,6.An example,5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,Convergent argument,Argument structures,1.Simple argument,Claim,Support,inference,A simple argument only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following:,SUPER NANNIES,To keep up with the times,Norland Coll
5、ege in England,trainning nannies,has added two new classes to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技驾驶).Why?Because the children of the rich and famous are often targeted by the paparazzi(狗仔队),and could potentially become victims of kidnapping（绑架）attempts.So,Noland thinks its naannies need
6、 to know how to handle these high-risk situations.,Claim,Support/Claim,Support,inference,inference,A chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The support of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following:,relay race 接力比赛,2.
7、Chain argument,小伙伴，此处有视频哦！,3.Compound argument,A compound argument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following:,Claim,Support,inference,inference,inference,Support,Support,CELEBRITIES WHO FELL FROM GRACE 那些自毁前途的明星,“The higher you go,the harder you fall”is a common Eng
8、lish expression.It means the more successful you become,the more you have to lose.And its an experience shared by many celebrities who have ruined their careers by doing something stupid or illegal.Here are some famous people who have fallen from grace.,Tiger Woods In 2009,Tiger Woods was the best g
9、olfer in the worldBut then he had an affair.In December2009,the tabloids（小报）revealed that Woods had cheated on his wife with more than 12 women,Lindsay Lohan Between 2003 and 2005,Lindsay Lohan starred in a string of highly successful films and became known as the teen move queenUnfortunately,in 200
10、6,Lindsay started drinking and doing drugs;and since 2007,shes been arrested over twenty times.,Phil Spector is currently in prison for murder.,Lance Armstrong use performance enhancing drugs.,Should Smoking Be Banned?It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking.However,although I
11、 feel that smoking can be harmful,I do not think it should be banned.First,smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax.For some,it.A further point is that governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes.This provides funds.I would also argue that people should
12、have the right to choose whether they smoke or not.People should not smoke.,兄弟，来一根呀！,Support,Support,Support,Claim,4.Convergent argument,Claim,Support,inference,Support,A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim.In other words,only one support cannot stand well without
13、the other,as shown in the following.,rather than it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think：well-knit（严谨）,1、its so cold outside,lets have hot pot for dinner ok?,3、because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！,4、ok,lets go!,最后，他们在一起了！,2、why do we have to eat hot pot?,The weather
14、is so cold today.,we should eat hot pot for dinner today.,Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather.,热火锅结构,5.Complex argument,Claim,Support,Support/Claim,Support,Support,Support,Support,A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argumentat
15、ion,an shown in the following:,Sherlock：Watson is his flatmate,Watson need to get a flatshare.,Just after lunch,Mike and Watson come.,Watson got shot,Watson cant afford London on an Army pension.,Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate.,小伙伴，此处有视频哦！,Convergent argument,Argume
16、nt structures,CONTENTS目录,1.Definition,2.Principles and Conventions,3.Argument structures,4.Strategy,6.An example,5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,Strategies,1.Reasoning,2.Example,3.Raising figures,4.Contrast and comparison,5.Making concessions,6.Quotation,7.Analogy,.,1.Reasoning,R
17、easoning is to organise the causes and effects in a logical way.inductive reasoning（归纳法）reasoning from detailed facts to general princiles(or from effect to cause)deductive reasoning(演绎法)reasoning from the general to the particular(or from cause to effect),常用关联词,therefore,as a result,consequently,fo
18、rtunately,surprisingly.,常用句式,As，since，becauseDue to，owing to，Because of，thanks to The reason why is that be related to be associated with contribute to,“Facts speak louder than words.”-Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim.,2.Example,常用关联词,as an illustr
19、ation,for example,in particular,specifically,to illustrate,to demonstrate.,常用句式,A good case in point is that A typical example can be found in,Claim:opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied.,支持：便宜、安全又环保，为什么不选择它呢？反对：又没有足够的实验证明转基因食品绝对安全，所以应该谨慎对待！,“Let the data speak for
20、 themselves.”Statistic data from an authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your claim.,3.Raising figures,Ways to present figures:,table(表格)line graph（折线图）bar chart（柱状图）pie chart（饼状图）process diagram（流程图）,Claim:is very papular,expecially among young women.,4.Contrast and comparis
21、on,claim:It is more expensive to live in China than in America.,e.g.Assume that you earn 8000/month in China and your.American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America.,for you:60 years for Peter:6 years,for you:10 years for Peter:0.5 years,20 4$,常用关联词,Likewise,similarlyIn contrast,on the cont
22、rary,while,whereas.,5.Making concessions,It is a indirect way to express your disagreement with an opinion.It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable.,常见表达,AlthoughthoughAs is grantedIn spite of the fact that Opponents woul
23、d argue that,小伙伴，此处有视频哦！,6.Quotation,A quotation is a phrase from a book,research,play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible and authoritive.,In the middle of difficult
24、y lies opportunity.-Albert Einstein,常用句式,Just as sb puts it.According to a recent study.A recent opinion poll revealed that,A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse.-Xiaoping Deng,A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier.-Napolon Bonaparte,7.Analogy,Analogy is an inference
25、that if things agree in some respects they probably agree in others.,e.g.water is to fish what air is to humans.I love you,just like mice like rice.,常用句式,A is to B what C is to D.Just like.,CONTENTS目录,1.Definition,2.Principles and Conventions,3.Argument structures,4.Strategy,6.An example,5.Common lo
26、gical fallacies and weakness in argument,1.Absolute statements,Although it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression,avoid making absolute claims that can be dismissed with a single exception.,example,We cant communicate with people from other country without learning English.,要
27、不咱说中文？,成啊。,小伙伴，此处有视频哦！,Money is everything.,The heart made by money is empty.,example,男人没一个好东西,No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/everything/nothing.,2.False dilemma,Avoid overdramatizing your case by offering readers only two alternatives.Most readers will immediately rec
28、ognize the weakness of such an unrealistic argument.,example,Its necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it!,love,hate,老妈,女盆友,3.Basing arguments on personalities,Dont presume that readers will be impressed by citing endorsements by famous people.The fact that a celebrity or single experts s
29、upports your argument is not convincing evidence.Dont attack the personality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it.National health care,for example,were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.,example,Kathie Lee Gifford,a popular TV celebrity,says that crui
30、ses are wonderful,so they must be.,我是权威我怕谁！,National health care,for example,were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.,4.False analogy,Comparisons form weak arguments.Although they may be useful to illustrate an idea,they rarely provide convincing evidence.The fact that an educational policy works i
31、n Japan does not mean it will work in the United States.,example,The fact that a policy works in the past doesnt means it still works in today.Birth control policy is essential to our social and economic system.,5.Hasty generalizations,Make sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence
32、and not coincidence or simple circumstance.,example,French people are more romantic Asian students are better in math.,6.Begging the questions,Begging the Question is a fallacy in which the premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or assume that the conclusion is true.Bill:God must exi
33、st.Jill:How do you know?Bill:Because the Bible says so.Jill:Why should I believe the Bible?Bill:Because the Bible was written by God.,example,The weakest countries have no real international status.,这话谁说的？,Absolute statements,Basing arguments on personalities,Hasty generalizations,False dilemma,Fals
34、e analogy,Begging the questions,Logical fallacies,I strongly recommend that people shouldI agree to the point to some extent.I would like to believe thatshould beFormypart/Astome/AsfarasIamconcerned,Idliketoagreetotheformerpointofview./Myfavorgoestothefirstpointofview.Thereareprobablysometruthsinbot
35、harguments/statements.ItistruethatButPersonally,Iprefer/Iminfavorof/onthesideof,How to express your opinion：,CONTENTS目录,1.Definition,2.Principles and Conventions,3.Argument structures,4.Strategy,6.An example,5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,To begin with,Disneyland to be built in
36、Shanghai will boost the employment in face of tough job market globally.,Obviously,another benefit will be spiritual enjoyment and cultural amusement.,Moreover,this will be another golden opportunity to elevate Shanghais international metropolis image,aside from the 2010 World Expo.,China has become
37、 the third largest entity.Embracing multi-cultures and integration into globalization are the inexorable trend.,I believe Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will be a correct choice,not only for Shanghai,but also for China.,Should We Build Disneyland in Shanghai?,3.Argument structures,1.Definition,5.Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,4.Strategy,2.Principles and Conventions,6.An example,THANK YOU,
