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1、作文总复习,Relationships within sentences:cause and effect;comparison and contrast;definition;classification and exemplification.Cause and effect:表示原因或结果的动词和动词短语：bring about,lead to,make,give rise to,arise from,result in，result from,表示原因的介词和短语：because of,due to,owing to,thanks to,for,on account of表示原因的连词
2、和短语：since,because,now that,in that,the reason is that,This is why 表示结果的词和短语：as a result,consequently,the result is.在理解原因和结果时，要注意一因多果和一果多因。有些结果，在这里是结果，在那里可能变成原因。,Sample 1 What does a good nights sleep mean to our mood?Generally we are happier,less aggressive,sleepier,and,a bit surprisingly,less frien
3、dly.Being sleepier is easily explained.It simply takes a little time to become fully alert after awakening.Researchers found that a half hour after getting up,people are less sleepy than before retiring.这段话表现了一因多果。The cause is“good nights sleep”.And effect is“We are happier,less aggressive,sleepier,
4、and,a bit surprisingly,less friendly.”,Sample 2 The engineers who repaired the clock believe that the breakdown was the result of metal fatigue.Metals deteriorate owing to repeated stresses above a certain critical value.Part of the clock mechanism fractured.As a result,the speed of the the gear whe
5、els increased from about 1.5 revolutions per minute to 16,000 rpm the resulting centrifugal force threw pieces of the clock mechanism in all directions.It also damaged the mechanism which drives the clicks hands.,The metal fatigue had never been noticed,as fatigue cracks are invisible to the naked.T
6、he engineers have now fitted a device that will prevent the accidents from happening again.Any increase in speed will cause a brake to be applied to the gear wheel.They engineers are confidents that Big Ben will remain accurate and reliable for another 200 years.Para.1,Para.3,Comparison and Contrast
7、为了论证作者的观点，作者往往把他所论述的内容跟读者所熟悉的内容进行比较和对照，通过这两种手段阐释主题。Comparison阐明事物的相似或相同之处；而contrast说明事物的不同，以下一些标志词可以帮助我们理解comparison and contrast。Contrast:but than;and than;than;instead of;unlike;but as;more;and;while;however;in contrast;on the contrary;different from;opposite;even though Comparison:and;like;as as;
8、but than;more/er;compare with;similar to/similarly;in the same way;also;too;in comparison,Sample 1 The camera and the eye are similar in many respects.They both need light rays in order to function.Both have a sensitive surface on which the image is formed.In the eye the image is formed on the retin
9、a（视网膜）In the camera the image is formed on the film.As in a camera,the image on the retina is inverted.Comparisons between camera and eyes:1.need light rays to function 2.Has a sensitive surface 3.The image is inverted 在描述两者的相同之处时用了similar和both这样的词。Contrast between camera and eyes:1.In the eye,the i
10、mage is formed on the retina2.In the camera,the image is formed on the film.,Sample Social insects live in integrated communities which in some ways are similar to human communities.In both types of community there is division of labor.In insect societies certain insects are responsible for reproduc
11、tion;the workers collect food while the soldiers defend the colony.In the same way human groups such as farmers and shopkeepers have specialized functions in producing goods and providing services to the community.It is not surprising,therefore,that many analogies have been made between social insec
12、ts and human societies.It must not be forgotten,however,that insect social behavior is determined by innate instinctive mechanisms.Insects show no capacity for learning or for developing s social tradition based on learning.,这里作者把insect society 和human society 的相似和相异之处进行比较和对照。Comparison:Insect Societ
13、y-the division of labor;Human Society-specialized purposes for different groupsContrast:Insect Society-social behavior determined by innate instinctive mechanisms;Human Society-able to learn or develop a social tradition based on learning.,Definition常用于definition的方式有以下四种：类比；用同义词解释；描写；描述功能、用途1 类比 常用句
14、型有：A is like B The brain is like a computer.A is similar to B The brain is similar to a computer.A is B The computer is a technical brain.A has beencompared to B The computer has been compared to the brain2 用同义词解释,如：The pharmacist dispenses medicine.We need grass roots,or popular support.,3 描写，如：The
15、 long,yellow,edible fruit from the tropic is called a banana.Corn is a tall,leafy plant which bears its needs on large ears.4 描述功能、用途,如：A chair is used to set on.The subject of current research is the right hemisphere which controls spatial relationships.,Sample 1 Programming people means getting ot
16、hers to act consistently as you want them to act.Stern parents or employers often are pretty good at this,at least while the subjects are under observation.Sample 2 Wind is the movement of the air over the earths surface.This movement is related to air pressure.Near the earths surface the pressure i
17、s greater at the poles than at the equator.Away from the surface it is lower at the poles.Because of the pressure differences there is a constant flow of air.This is the main cause of wind.Winds are also deflected by the rotation of the earth.This deflection is called the Coriolis force.,Classificat
18、ion 比如：apple,orange,banana,pineapple可以归为fruit;而painting,sculpture,dance,opera属于art.常见句型 is classified as can be divided into several kinds(groups)have a few categories can be grouped into,Sample 1 These marketing experts say that“the average citizen will have to step up his buying by nearly fifty pe
19、rcent in next dozen years,or the economy will sicken.”This means that the producer of household commodities,i.e.a television refrigerator,air-conditioner and washing machine manufacturer,will have to find some new means of making further sales.这里television,refrigerator,air-conditioner,washing-machin
20、e按分类都属于household commodities。,Exemplification举出具体实例来证明一个理论或观点。在阅读中正确区分论点和例证有助于分清主干，分清一个部分跟另一个部分之间的关系。就英语文章而言，每一段往往都有一个主题句（论点），根据论点的内容所指，作为例证的具体实例可以是person,object,fact,evidence or experience。标志性短语：For example;for instance;take the example of;in the case of;to illustrate this;such as;much like;A is th
21、e example of B,Sample 1 Historically,scientists,inventors as well as artists have performed best in relaxed moment of daydreaming.Newton solved many of his toughest problems when he was in private reflections and fantasies.Thomas Edison also knew the value of half-waking states,whenever confronted w
22、ith obstacles,he would let fantasies flood in his mind.Debussy used to gaze at the river Seine and the playful golden reflections of the setting sun to establish an atmosphere for creativity.Schiller kept apples in his desk drawer.Their aroma helped him to evoke a mood of daydreaming.The thesis statement is:Examples:The author s attitude:,
