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1、Lecture 1,The 3 basic elements of English:,speech sounds grammar vocabulary,Lexicology:a branch of Linguistics which studies the origins and meanings of words.To be specific,they include aspects like the formal and semantic structure,semantic relationships,word formation and usage,the historical dev
2、elopment and evolution of words,etc.,It has something to do with the following subjects:,形态学、语体学、词典学、词源学、特定文化背景等。,Aims and Significance of the Course:,To know the general rules of word formation which helps us enlarge our vocabulary.,To foster the ability to use“the right word”.As a saying goes,“Rig
3、ht words in right places makes a good writing”.,To have a better awareness of language(English).,To get a deeper understanding of the culture of foreign countries.To sum up,English Lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course as well as as a practical one.What is a word?Please think by yourselves a
4、nd give the definition of your own.The minimal free form of a language,which has a given sound,meaning and syntactic function.,What Does Vocabulary Refer To?,The total number of words in a language.In English,there are more than_ words.100,00 B.100,000 C.one millionD.one billion Including:Native vs.
5、Alien,Classification of English words,Basic Word Stock:A.All national character Words that are commonly used.B.Stability(relatively speaking)Have been in use for centuries.Some disappeared but many more are created.,C.Productivity(can form new words)D.Polysemy(various meanings,“book”;“man”:to man a
6、dove)E.Collocability(form idioms,proverbs),Non-basic Words:,Terminology,jargon,slang,dialectal words,etc.,Content Words and Functional words,Native words and Borrowed wordsThe latter can be divided into 4 types.What are they?(Homework for your self-study),Lecture 2,(1)The Development of the English
7、VocabularyAbout 300 language families exist in the world,among which the Indo-European is widespread,having much influence on the development of English.,1)Old English vocabulary(4501150 AD)After Romans,3 Germanic tribes called Angles,Saxons and Jutes controlled England.Their languageAnglo-Saxon als
8、o dominated the land.Common practice:combine 2 native words to create new words.It was a highly inflected language with about 50000-60000 words.,In the 9th century,some Norwegians and Danish invaded England,which brought some Scandinavian words such as:skirt,window,skill,birth,egg”,etc.,2)Middle Eng
9、lish（11501500）The Normans invaded England from France in 1066 and many French words flowed into English.(state,judge,power,prince,court,crime,peace,battle,etc.),3)Modern English(1500-now)2 sub-periods can be divided:Early Modern English(1500-1700)Because of the Renaissance,many Latin and Greek words
10、 entered English and English began to have a Latinate flavor.,b.Late Modern EnglishAfter experiencing the Industrial Revolution and Bourgeois revolution,England became a great economic power and began to absorb words from all major languages in the world.After World War II,more words are created by
11、means of word-formation.,General Characteristics of Modern English,1.Receptivity2.Simplicity of Inflection(esp.endings)3.relatively fixed word-orderAdvantahes and disadvantages co-exist in terms of learning English.,Growth of Contemporary English Vocabulary,3 main sources of modern English vocabular
12、y:,The rapid development of science and technology(moon walk,smart bomb)Social,economic and political changes(talk show,the fourth world,open university,chairperson)The influence of other cultures and languages(kungfu),Modes of Vocabulary Development,Creation 创新词most important fruice,sportcast2.Sema
13、ntic change（旧词新义）economic way of creating new words web,break,mouse3.Borrowing4.Reviving archaic or obsolete words,but insignificant especially to American English.(guess,sick,fall),Chapter 3,Morphological Structure of English Words,Morphemes(词素),A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands
14、 alone to communicate meaning.Structurally,a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units.,Morphemes,Lets take internationalization as an example,which can be broken down into inter-,nation,-al,-ize,-ation,each having a meaning of its own.And t
15、hese segments cannot be further divided;otherwise,they could not make any sense.,Morphemes,Undesirability-un+-desire+-able+-ity Improvement-im+-prove+-mentUnfaithful-?,Definition of the morpheme,The morpheme is“the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words”.(Crystal,1985),Morph 语素形式,语子,T
16、he phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are“morphs”.(p.44)Cats,bags,matches:/s/,/z/,/iz/3 morphs动词 be 的变化,Allomorph:词素变体,An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.cats,
17、beds,horses,(-s,-z,-iz)feet,men;deer,fish 动词过去时态变化 ed,-ied;不规则变化 词缀的变化 如：/p,b,m/前的否定前缀：如 im-(否则多为in-),Types of morphemes1.free morpheme(those that are meaningful and can be used freely and independently such as earth,wind,boy,bite,etc.)2.bound morpheme(粘着词素）Mainly in derivative wordsrecollection:How
18、 many bound morphemes?,Affixes,Forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or functionAlmost all affixes are bound morphemesFew can be used as independent words,Two groups of affixes,Inflectional affixes（屈折词缀）affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relati
19、onships or called inflectional morphemes Modern English is an analytical language and only has a few inflectional affixes.-s,-ed,-ing-er/est,Derivational Affixes(派生词缀),affixes added to other morphemes to create new words two kinds:1.prefixes:come before the word 2.suffixes:come after the word,比较相似又有
20、所差异的几个概念,Root,Stem,BaseWhat is root?(词根)the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity(Crystal,1985)a root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed(Bauer,1983),Stem 词干,The part of the word-form
21、 which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.2 forms:1root morpheme(iron,gas)2root morpheme+affixational moephemesmouthful,nation,national,nationalist,Base 词基,It is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.It can be a root or a stem.For example,“internationalists”:Nation(ro
22、ot,stem base)NationalNationalistInternationalist,Chapter 4 Word Formation,4.1.affixationPrefix:a-(not,without),如 amoral;neo-.pan-,mal-,macro-,etc.Suffix(page 61)4.2.Compounding(composition)V.Adj.N.2 words(or more than 2)put togetherHot line;laser bomb;black hole;baby-sit;job-hop;window-shop;toothach
23、e;silkwormround-the-clock(negotiation),4.3.Conversion(转类法）词性转换water the flower;book a ticket;man a busIts a long wait;John is a cheat;Give me a push,OK?The poor;the accused;the deserted4.4:Blending（拼缀法）Parts of 2 words are put together.Smog Smoke+fog botel-?boat+hotel,Exercise:,Tell us how the follo
24、wing are formed and what they mean:chunnel;sitcom;comsat;brunch,4.5 Clipping,A.word clippingClipping the front,back or both.telephone phone;advertisement ad;discotheque discoinfluenza flu;refrigerator fridgeB.Phrase clippingpub(public house)zoo(zoological garden)pop(popular music),4.6 Acronymy,1.Ini
25、tialisms UN,IOC,UFO;TV,Can you work out what the following refer to?IMF,C/O,TB,TOEFL,H-bomb,International Monetary Fund(国际货币基金组织)care of(由转交)tuberculosis 肺炎托福(Test of English as a Foreign Language)氢弹(hydrogen bomb),2.Acronyms,Words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.NATORada
26、r(radio detecting and ranging)TEFL,4.7.backformation(逆生法)television-televisedestructiondestructbeggarbegdonation donateautomationautomatediagnosisdiagnose一般是把(假定的)后缀去掉。,Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis,5.1 Word Meaning 1.Reference 所指,referent(所指物)It indicates which things are being t
27、alked about.Arbitrary,conventional(dog)2.Concept:result of human cognitionThe same concept can be expressed by many words(多),3.Sense:the meaning of meaningEvery word that has meaning has sense,but not every word has reference(but,yes,.),Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis,5.1 motivation
28、(意义的)理据语言符号与意义之间的联系（依据）1.Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声）tick-tuck;cuckoo;quack;(see the exercise)2.Morphological MotivationAirmail mail by air;hopeless without hopeBut“greenhorn”is an exception,3.Semantic Motivation,e.g.The pen is mightier than the swordHe is fond of the bottle.The mouth of the river常用的
29、主要手段:A.metaphor(without like as)隐喻e.g.Life is a short summer.e.g.All the world is a stage.,b.metonymy(借代),The crown-kingThe Cambridge in the East Zhejiang Univ.C.Synecdoche(提喻)A part represents the whole,or vice versaThe White House American government,4.Etymological Motivation,Pen-羽毛-笔 laconic-Laco
30、ns(部落)-简要的It seems in English most of the words have no evident motivations.,Componential Analysis,Break down the sense of a word into its minimal components(traits),Semantic features,Man:+human+male+adultWoman:+human-male+adultBoy,girl 可类推boy girl,The chair smiles happily.Why is this sentence odd?,
31、Chapter Six,Sense Relations,Polysemy(多义关系）The development of a words semantic structure results in this phenomenon.辐射型 radiation(“soft”)soft wind,soft words,soft drink,soft money,soft light,.连锁型 concatenation(the original meaning is lost finally)Candidate-white-robed-候选人,2.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）,1）perfe
32、ct homonyms(same spelling and pronunciation)bankbeardate2)homograph(same spelling only)bow弓bow鞠躬;,3)homophone(same pronunciation only),dear,deerright,write,ritesight,cite,3.Synonymy Most synonyms are relative synonyms.stagger,reel,totterwalk unsteadily摇摆；蹒跚；老人/婴儿的脚步alter change vary 部分改变（大小、形状等）本质的变
33、化，或以甲代替乙 侧重变化的多样性:Their clothes in color.Homework:tell the difference of the synonyms:limit;restrict;confine,The differences between synonyms are mainly:,Sprehend,understandrich,wealthy;work,toilwant,wish,desire:语义强度递增,2)Affective and stylistic difference,statesman politicianvocalist singer,4.Antony
34、my(反义）,1）Complementaries（矛盾反义词）Such as:dead-alive;male-female;same-different;single-married特点：非此即彼;无比较级；不能用very 修饰,2)Contrary terms（对立反义词）such as:rich-poor;old-young;big-small;beautiful-uglyhot-cold;love-hate特点：相比较而存在；可中间插入词语（gradability)hot warm cool coldlove like indifference antipathy hate,3)Conv
35、erses（相对/关系反义词）,相对立而又依存，侧重于彼此的关系Such as:parent/child;husband/wifeemployer/employee;seller/buyergive/receive;lend/borrowMany words have synonyms but have no antonyms.read,house,magazine?,6.5 Hyponymy,6.6 Semantic Field,German linguist Trier first raised the theory.Genus vs.Species:the basic concept o
36、f semantic fieldAnimal:sheep,tiger,wolf,dog,cat living animal plant,Every word can be put in a certain semantic field theoretically.Subordinates form a semantic field or fields.Pick out the superordinates from the groups of words:vegetable,spinach,cabbage,turnipvegetable!wood,stone,cement,building materialbuilding material!,Words meanings can be more clearly defined in a semantic field,otherwise they will be ambiguous.In reading,we develop it into“context”,a broader sense.,e.g.roserose,black,purple,gray,pinkchrysanthemum,tulip,lily,rose,
