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1、PaSSaRe2TheOriginsofPaleoanthropologyA. Paleoanthropology,asubdisciplineofanthropology,isthestudyofextinctprimates.Whilethemajorityofresearchersdoingthiskindofworkareanthropologists,paleontologists(withinthedisciplineofgeology)mayalsostudyfossilprimates.Theprimarymethodusedbypaleoanthropologistsisth
2、eanalysisoffossilremains.However,theyincreasinglyrelyonotherscientificdisciplinestogainabetterunderstandingoftheenvironmentalforcesthatplayedaroleinourevolution,aswellastheformationofthefossilrecord.Forexample,geologistsidentifyprocessesofsedimentationandfossilization,anddatefossilsandtheirassociate
3、dsedimentsusingavarietyoftechniques.Avarietyofdisciplinesareinvolvedinhelpingtoreconstructancientenvironmentsandbiologicalcommunities.Paleontologistsidentifyancientfloralandfaunalfossils.Palynologistsanalyzeparticlesinoceanandlakecores,aswellaspolleninterrestrialsedimentstodeterminethepredominantflo
4、rainagivenareaataparticulartime.Taphonomistshelpdeterminehowfossilassemblageswereformed.B. Inthe1920szRaymondDartproposedthatearlyhominins(bipedalprimates,likeourselves)foundinSouthAfricancaveshadinhabitedthosecaves.Inaddition,heinterpretedpuncturewoundsfoundinsomeoftheskullsasevidencethatthosehomin
5、insmadeandusedweaponsforhuntingandmale-maleaggression.ThetaphonomistC.K.Brainarguedinmorerecenttimesthateitherhomininsfellthroughcracksintosubterraneancavesafterhavingbeencachedintreesbyleopards,ortheirbonesweredraggedinbyrodentszsuchasporcupines,forgnawing.Wenowrealizethatwhilethoseearlymembersofou
6、rtribelikelyusedsimpletools,theywerenotbig-gamehuntersorwarmongers.C. Themostinfluentialfieldstohavecontributedtothescienceofpaleoanthropologyaregeology,biology,andarchaeology.Geologists(eventhosewhowerenotrecognizedassuch,e.g.,CharlesDarwin)areprimarilyresponsiblefortherealizationsthat(1)theearthis
7、ancient,anditformedvianaturalprocesses;(2)theearthwasoriginallycoveredwithwater,andlifebeganinthatz*primordialsea”;(3)lifeonearthoriginatedwithsimpleforms,withsomedescendentspeciesbecomingmorecomplexovertime,ascanbeseeninthefossilrecord;(4)specieschangeorgoextinctinresponsetoenvironmentalchange;(5)n
8、ewspeciesaretheresultofaportionofapopulationadaptingtoneworchangedenvironmentalconditions;(6)thesameforces,suchasvolcaniceruptions,thatoperatetodayarethosethatshapedtheearthandcausedchangesinthefossilrecordviaextinctionsandspeciationevents;and(7)layersanddepositsarecontinuallydevelopingorerodingsoth
9、atorganismsareburiedandfossilscometolight,respectively.Theideathatthesameforcesthatoperatetodayarethosethatshapedtheearthandcausedchangesinthefossilrecordistermeduniformitarianism.CharlesLyellcoinedthetermandisheraldedasthefatherofmoderngeology.HegreatlyinfluencedDarwinandthuscontributedtoDarwin,ssy
10、ntheticviewoftheevolutionoflifeonearth.Geologistsusevariousmethodstodatefossilsorfossil-containingsedimentsandhavedevelopedachronology(i.e.,atimeline)fortheearthasawhole,aswellasdepositionallayersinareaswherefossilshavebeendiscovered.D. Biologistsandgeneticistshaveplayedaroleinpalaeoanthropologyinth
11、attheyhaverefinedthetheoryofevolutionbymeansofnaturalselectionbydetermininghowtraitsareinherited.ScientistsQD国IELTSADVANTAGEfromavarietyofdisciplineshaveclassifiedtheknownspeciesoftheworldbasedonevolutionaryrelationships.E. Archaeologyhasplayedandcontinuestoplayastrongroleinpaleoanthropologyviathest
12、udyofthearchaeologicalrecord,thats,therecordofpasthumanactivityviaculturalremainsandanthropogenic(human-induced)changestotheenvironment.ThomasJeffersonhasbeenreferredtoasthefirstarchaeologist,inthathismethodsweremorescientificthanhisfellowantiquarians.Antiquarianstendedtobeafterthegoods,“withoutrega
13、rdforcarefulinterpretationofthearchaeologicalrecord.Mostwouldbeconsideredlootersbytoday/sstandards.Theytookitemsofgreatculturalandhistoricalsignificanceforpersonalormuseumcollections.Someitemshavebeenreturnedtotheircountriesoforigin,butthedamageisdonewhenthearchaeologicalrecordisdisturbedordestroyed
14、.Onceanitemhasbeenremovedfromtheareawhereitwasfound,scientistscannolongerlearnfromitscontext,forexample,fromassociatedartifactsorthelocationoftheartifactingeographicspaceandtime.FAccordingtoMerriam-WebsterOnline,thefirstknownuseoftheterm“paleoanthropologyoccurredin1916.However,theearliestpaleoanthro
15、pologistswerenotlabeledassuchandcamefromavarietyofoccupations,suchasanatomistsandphysicians.Thefirsthomininfossilsdiscoveredweretheneanderthalsinthe1800s.However;paleoanthropologistsdisagreedaboutwhetherneanderthalswereancestorsofhumansorweremodernhumans.EugeneDuboiswasthefirstpersontointentionallys
16、earchforafossilhominin.HewenttoAsiawiththesolepurposeoffindingevidencethathumansevolvedthere,aswasthereigningbeliefinWesternEurope.In1891,hediscoveredaskullcap(knownasacalotte)andfemurontheSoloRiverinTrinil7Java.This,alongwithotherdiscoveriesmadeinChinaandJavaduringthefirsthalfofthe2Othcenturyzsuppo
17、rtedtheAsianorigintheoryuntilRaymondDartandhiscontemporary,RobertBroom,begandiscoveringmuchmoreancientmaterialinSouthAfricanquarriesandcaves.FurtherdiscoveriesbyLouisandMaryLeakeyinEastAfricacementedAfricaasthebirthplaceofhumanity,andtheracetofindhumanoriginsandancestorswason.Source:https:milnepubli
18、shimeneseo.edu/the-history-of-our-tribe-hominini/ChQPter/DaleocmthroDoIoay/Questions15-19Passage2hassixsectionslabelledA-F.ChoosethecorrectheadingsforSectionsB-F.ListofHeadingsi. Archaeologistsversusantiquariansii. Earlyfossildiscoveriesiii. Environmentalchangesiv. Overviewofthesubjectv.Thediscoveriesofgeologyvi. Thehumanstoryvii. Theinfluenceofpaleoanthropologyviii. Theroleofevolutionarystudiesi.TwoviewsonhowfossilscametobeincavesE.g.SectionA-iv15. SectionB16. SectionC17. SectionD18. SectionE19. SectionF
