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1、中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Language in Use,主讲人张智鹏,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,8.1 Speech Act Theory 8.1.1 Performatives and Constatives 8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature 8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle 8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.3 Post-Gricean Developments 8.3.
2、1 Relevance Theory 8.3.2 The Q- and R- principles 8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Definition of Pragmatics The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Speakers meanin
3、g (A father is trying to get his 3-year-old daughter to stop lifting up her dress to display her new underwear to the assemble.)Father: We dont DO that. Daughter: I KNOW, Daddy. You dont WEAR dresses. (wear = do) Explanations: Father: “We dont display underwear to others” (Yes) vs. “We dont wear und
4、erwear” (No) Daughter: I know you dont wear underwear.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningUtterance vs. Sentence Sentence: abstract units of the language system. Utterance: units of language in use.Sentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X? Do
5、g! My bag is heavy. “Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Contextual Meaning: meaning in context The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used. It was a hot Christmas day, so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and
6、 had a good time swimming and surfing. More examples: 1. A: Are you going to the seminar? B: Its on linguistics. (Maybe he is not interested in it, so he wouldnt go) 2. A: Would you like some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. (I dont like coffee because I would be hard to go asleep with it),中华英
7、语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,John Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)speech acts: actions performed via utterances8.1.1 Performatives vs. Constatives（施为句与叙事句）Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, e.g.: I g
8、o to the park every Sunday.I teach English. Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,E.g
9、. a. I do.b. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.c. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.d. I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.e. I promise to finish it in time.f. I apologize.g. I declare the meeting open.h. I warn you that the bull will charge.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Felicity conditions: 合适/
10、适切条件A simplified version suggested by Austin is as follows：A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure.（必须有一个相应的规约程序） (ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.（相关的参与者和环境是合适的）B. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.（该程序必须正确完全地执行）C. Very often,
11、 the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.（有关人员必须有相关的思想、感情和意图，并且必须有相关的后续行为） Problems with felicity conditions: No strict procedure for promising, e.g. I promise. or, I give my word for it.Constatives may also be in
12、felicitous: “I bequeath my watch to my brother” said by somebody without a watch. (T or F? In order for the sentence to be true, it must meet the condition that “I must own a watch”; otherwise, the sentence is false),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Features of performatives on syntax and word levels:First perso
13、n singularSpeech act verbs / performative verbsThe present tenseIndicative moodActive voiceConclusion:The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.All sentences can be used to do things.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act Speech acts can be analyz
14、ed on 3 levels: A locutionary act（发话行为/言内行为）: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”. An illocutionary act（行事行为/言外行为）: an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.In saying X, I was doing Y. In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise.Illocutionary forc
15、e: equivalent to speakers meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, and may be translated into Chinese as 言外之意.A perlocutionary act（取效行为/言后行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.By saying X and doing Y, I did Z.By saying “I will come tomorrow” and making a
16、 promise, I reassure my friends.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,一、术语解释 1. Locutionary Act, Illocutinary Act and Perlocutionary Act (5 points)北京交通大学2005研，武汉大学2005研【答案】According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. A locutionary act is the uttering of words, phrases,
17、and clauses, which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Therefore, when somebody says “Morning”, we can ask a question like “What did he do?”, and the answer could be “He of
18、fered a greeting.” A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. Thus, by saying “Morning!” the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer. When the two speakers are on normal terms, the effect may be negligible. But if there were any tensions between t
19、hem, a simple “Morning!” from one side may bring about great changes in their relationship. The other may accept this show of friendliness, and be friends with him again. In this case, we can say “hes made peace with his friend”.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,2. constative武汉大学2007研【答案】Constative refers to an
20、utterance that asserts or states something that can be judged as true or false. For example, the statement “The cat is on the floor” is a constative.3.locutionary act武汉大学2008研【答案】According to John Austin, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. The firs
21、t sense is an ordinary one. That is, when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act. It is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses， and the act of convey
22、ing literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. The other two acts are illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,4.speech act浙江大学2005研【答案】“Speech act” is a central concept in Speech Act Theory, according to which, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are
23、 speaking. Actions performed through utterances are generally called speech acts. 5. performatives中山大学2008研【答案】Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is part of, the doing an action. Th
24、e judges imprisonment sentence, the presidents war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,二、简答题Please explain the original idea in the speech act theory.南开大学2004研【答案】Speech act theory, originally proposed by Austin, is a philosophical explanation of the nature of l
25、inguistic communication. Austin made a distinction between what he called “constatives and “performatives”. Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were no
26、t verifiable. Later on, for a variety of reasons, Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performatives. He set up another model to explain the way acts were performed by means of language. According to his new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously whe
27、n speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,三、选择题1. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest and explain the reason in ONE sentence. 南京大学2007研 A. threaten B. advise C. beseech (恳求) D. urge Focus on the type of illocutionar
28、y act 【答案】A Explanation: in terms of illocutionary act, sentence A represents a Commissive（承诺性：说话人将来行为的承诺，如答应、保证等）speech act while the others are Directive（指令性：使听话人做某事，如请求命令或要求）. Other kinds of speech are expressive（表情语：表达情感，如道歉、欢迎或同情）, declarative（宣告语：如洗礼命名、宣布结为夫妻、声明辞职等），and representative（表性语：相信命题
29、为真，如断言、假设）。2. is using a sentence to perform a function. 西安外国语学院2006研 a. A perlocutionary act b. An illocutionary act c. A locutionary act d. Speech act 【答案】d,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,3. By saying “You have left the door wide open,” a speaker might be performing the three acts: locutionary, illocutionary
30、 and perlocutionary . 西安交通大学2008研 A. at the same time B. one after another C. two first and then the other D. one first and then the other two 【答案】A 4. The Illocutionary Act was developed by . 西安交通大学2008研 A. John Austin B. Levinson C. John Lyons D. John Searle【答案】D,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,五、填空题1. A perl
31、ocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the of, or the the utterance. 人大2004研 【答案】consequence；change brought about by2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an force. 清华大学2000，2001研 【答案】illocutionar
32、y六、判断正误题Speech act theory was proposed by G. Leech. 北京第二外国语学院2008研【答案】F (Speech act theory was proposed by John Austin),中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Conversational Implicature was proposed by Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)William James lectures at Harvard in 1967Logic and Conversation in 1975,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才
33、学习网 ,8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle (合作原则) People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. Grices theory Logic and Conversation is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.,中华
34、英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,The Cooperative Principle (CP): Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.(使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向)To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories
35、of maxims as follows： Maxim of Quantity:(数量准则) 1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Maxim of Quality:(质量准则) 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say something
36、 if you lack adequate evidence; Maxim of Relation(关系准则): Be relative. Maxim of Manner(方式准则): Be perspicuous. 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief. 4. Be orderly.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperati
37、ve and obey CP in communication.However, CP is often violated. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,8.2.2 Violation of the maximsViolation of the maxims (Quantity)1. Make your contribution as informative as
38、 is required. A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。 I dont want to tell you what I bought.(from a recommendation letter for a lectureship in philosophy) Dear Sir,Mr. Xs command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, Mr. X is not suitable for the job.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,
39、2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Aunt: How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother: Oh, not at all well. Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born. Her son should not be blamed.A: Your kid broke the window.B: Boys are boys.Boys are naughty an
40、d mischievous by nature. War is war.Its no use lamenting the tragedy of war. Terrible things always happen in it. Thats its nature.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Violation of the maxims (Quality) 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. You are the cream in my coffee. You are dear/precious to me. X runs as
41、 fast as a deer. X runs very fast. He is made of iron. This man has a strong character like iron. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.A: Beirut is in Peru, isnt it?B: And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.Its ridiculous.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Violation of the maxims (Relation)Be releva
42、nt.A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year. I dont want to talk about Prof. Wang.周萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好, 很忠诚的。周朴园：恩，我很累了。 我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。 I dont want to listen to this.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Violation of the maxims(Manner)1. Avoid obscurity of expressionA: Lets get the
43、 kids something.B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E. Dont give them chocolate.2. Avoid ambiguity “Never seek to tell thy love, Love that never told can be.” 1. Never seek to tell your love, the love who can never be told. 2. Never seek to tell your love, the love which if told cannot continue to exi
44、st. 3. Be brief A: Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles涂鸦. not satisfied.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature(i) Calculability(可推倒性): the fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and heare
45、rs are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. Hearers work out implicature based on literal/conventional meaning, CP and its maxims, context, other items of background knowledge, and the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to bot
46、h participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.(ii) Cancellability / defeasibility(可取消性): If the literal meanings, the CP, the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change. A: Do you want some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. (violation o
47、f relation maxim) I do not want coffee because coffee would keep me awake. I want to sleep; or I want coffee because coffee would keep me awake. I want to stay up.,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,(iii) Non-detachability: a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to th
48、e linguistic form; implicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance are changed for synonyms. A: Shall we go the cinema tonight? B: Therell be an exam tomorrow. Ill take an exam tomorrow. Isnt there an exam tomorrow? (violation of relation maxim)(iv) Non-conventionality(非常规性): Conversational
49、implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context. A1：下午踢球去吧！ A2：老王住院了？ B：上午还在换草皮。 A3: 足球场安装了一个新门柱。,中华英语学习网 官方总站：圣才学习网 ,Politeness PrincipleGrices CP does not explain why speakers often violate CP .Geoffrey Leech: Professor of Linguistic
50、s and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002. Principles of Pragmatics (1983): puts forward PP to save CP.Self(自身)-refers to the speaker. Other (他人)-refers to the addressee or a third person, present or not. Benefit (惠) & Cost (损)Generally speaking, if there is benefit, th
