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1、空间大地测量学主讲:李征航 教授助教:刘万科 博士武汉大学测绘学院卫星应用工程研究所2008年09月,空间大地测量学,原子钟(Atomic Clock)甚长基线干涉测量(VLBI)激光测卫(SLR)卫星测高(Satellite Altimetry)多普勒技术(Doppler Technique)卫星跟踪卫星(SST),内 容 提 要,Part 1.Atomic Clock,The National Physics Laboratory in England developed the first accurate caesium atomic clock in 1955,In 1967 the
2、 International Bureau of Weights and Measures(BIPM)adopted the atomic definition for an SI second,Definition of Atomic Second:地面状态的铯133原子对应于两个超精细能级跃迁 9 192 631 770个辐射周期的持续时间。科学家当前正在研制更高精度的原子钟:1 second in 10 billion years,Atomic Fountains(原子喷泉钟),15 fountains in operation at SYRTE,PTB,NIST,USNO,Penn S
3、t,INRIM,NPL,ON,JPL.6 with accuracy at 1 10-15.More than 10 under construction,A Brief History of Atomic Clocks at NISThttp:/tf.nist.gov/cesium/atomichistory.htm,1945-Isidor Rabi,a physics professor at Columbia University,suggests a clock could be made from a technique he developed in the 1930s calle
4、d atomic beam magnetic resonance.1949-Using Rabis technique,NIST(National Institute of Standards and Technology)announces the worlds first atomic clock using the ammonia molecule as the source of vibrations.1952-NIST completes the first accurate measurement of the frequency of the cesium clock reson
5、ance.The apparatus for this measurement is named NBS-1.,NBS-1,1954-NBS-1 is moved to NISTs new laboratories in Boulder,Colorado.1955-The National Physical Laboratory in England builds the first cesium-beam(铯原子束)clock used as a calibration source.1958-Commercial cesium clocks become available,costing
6、$20,000 each.1959-NBS-1 goes into regular service as NISTs primary frequency standard.1960-NBS-2 is inaugurated in Boulder;it can run for long periods unattended and is used to calibrate secondary standards.,NBS-2,1963-The search for a clock with improved accuracy and stability results in NBS-3.,NBS
7、-3,1967-The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures defines the second on the basis of vibrations of the cesium atom;the worlds timekeeping system no longer has an astronomical basis.,1968-NBS-4,the worlds most stable cesium clock,is completed.This clock was used into the 1990s as part of th
8、e NIST time system.,1972-NBS-5,an advanced cesium beam device,is completed and serves as the primary standard,NBS-5,1975-NBS-6 begins operation;an outgrowth of NBS-5,it is one of the worlds most accurate atomic clocks,neither gaining nor losing one second in 300,000 years.,1993-NIST-7 comes on line;
9、eventually,it achieves an uncertainty of 5 x 10-15,or 20 times more accurate than NBS-6.,1999-NIST-F1 begins operation with an uncertainty of 1.7 x 10-15,or accuracy to about one second in 20 million years,making it one of the most accurate clocks ever made(a distinction shared with similar standard
10、s in France and Germany).,喷泉原子钟内部构造图,Video Demonstration of How a Cesium Fountain Works(喷泉钟的动画演示,请用鼠标点击上述画面),NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic ClockThe Primary Time and Frequency Standard for the United States,The uncertainty of NIST-F1 is continually improving.In 2000 the uncertainty was about 1 x 10-
11、15,but as of the summer of 2005,the uncertainty has been reduced to about 5 x 10-16,which means it would neither gain nor lose a second in more than 60 million years!It is now approximately ten times more accurate than NIST-7,a cesium beam atomic clock that served as the United States primary time a
12、nd frequency standard from 1993-1999.,Galileo atomic clocks,Rubidium clock,Hydrogen maser clock,Galileo satellites:rubidium atomic frequency standards and passive hydrogen masers.The stability of the rubidium clock is so good that it would lose only three seconds in one million years,while the passi
13、ve hydrogen maser is even more stable and it would lose only one second in three million years.,Office of Naval Research-matchbox atomic clock,one second every 10,000 years Ultra-miniature Rubidium(Rb)Atomic Clock,40 cm3,NIST Chip-Scale Atomic Clock,On Aug.30,2004about the size of a grain of rice(1.
14、5 millimeters on a side and 4 millimeters high),consume less than 75 thousandths of a watt(enabling the clock to be operated on batteries)and are stable to one part in 10-10,equivalent to gaining or losing just one second every 300 years.,the physics package will be integrated with an external oscil
15、lator and control circuitry into a finished clock about 1 cm3 in size.,Part 2.VLBI-Very Long Baseline Interferometry,河外射电源(河外类星体),射电望远镜,射电望远镜 射电望远镜是一种能接收和处理来自太空的无线电信号的装置,由巨大的抛物面天线,高精度的原子钟,数据接收和处理设备等组成。,灵敏度 是指射电望远镜“最低可测”的能量值,此值 越低灵敏度越高。为提高灵敏度常用的办法有降低接收机本身的固有噪声、增大天线接收面积、延长观测积分时间等。,1)射电干涉测量,分辨率 指区分两个彼此
16、靠近射电源的能力,分辨率越高就能将越近的两个射电源分开。利用射电望远镜进行观测时其角分辨率可用下列公式来估算:式中 为角分辨率,为射电望远镜所接收的无线电信号的波长,通常为13cm和3.6cm,为射电望远镜接收天线的口径。,(2-1),那么,怎样提高射电望远镜的分辨率呢?对单天线射电望远镜来说,天线的直径越大分辨率越高。但是天线的直径难于作得很大,目前单天线的最大直径小于300米,对于波长较长的射电波段分辨率仍然很低,因此就提出了使用两架射电望远镜构成的射电干涉仪。对射电干涉仪来说,两个天线的最大间距越大分辨率越高。另外,在天线的直径或者两天线的间距一定时,接收的无线电波长越短分辨率越高。,阿
17、雷西博(Arecibo)天文台,波多黎各(西印度群岛),USA,直径:305m、51米深、1974年建成占地大约20英亩,40000块铝制面板组成,900吨的接收平台射线频率:50 MHz(6 m)10,000 MHz(3 cm).,The Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center(NAIC),a national research center operated by Cornell University under a cooperative agreement with the
18、National Science Foundation(NSF).,Arecibo Observatory,National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center http:/www.naic.edu/,世界上最大的钢结构的射电望远镜,直径100米,实际尺寸 100 110 m,Green Bank Telescope,National Radio Astronomy Observatory,West Virginia,USA,National Radio Astronomy Observator http:/www.gb.nrao.edu/gbt,1997年2 月,
19、日本空间科学研究所成功地发射了一颗VLBI空间观测研究卫星(VSOP),它可从东京分辨出悉尼的1颗米粒大小的东西,能在揭开黑洞结构等发挥重要的作用。,联线干涉测量,为较大幅度的提高角分辨率,有人提出了联线干涉测量的方法(见右图)。通过此方法我们就组成了一台虚拟的口径为D的大射电望远镜。此时D即为两台射电望远镜的距离。,VLA:Very Large Array Socorro,New Mexico,USAhttp:/www.vla.nrao.edu/,提高角分辨率,VLA由27个射电天线组成一个Y字型,每个天线的直径是25m,MERLIN,operated by Jodrell Bank Obs
20、ervatory,is the Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network,with separations of up to 217km.It operates at frequencies ranging from 151 MHz to 24 GHz.At 5GHz,the resolution of MERLIN is better than 50 milliarcseconds,http:/www.merlin.ac.uk/,http:/www.jb.man.ac.uk,Jodrell Bank Observatory,Unive
21、rsity of Manchester.,Jodrell Bank的 Lovell 望远镜,1957年开始运行,跟踪了世界第一颗人造卫星 Sputnik 1,其直径为76m,由于下列原因:电缆价格较贵,且铺设电缆的工作量也较大。由于温度和外界环境的不同,两根电缆所产生的热 胀冷缩及介电系数的变化也不相同,从而使A,B 两个射电望远镜所接收的信号在送往相关器的过程 中所花费的传送时间也不严格相同,从而影响结果 的精度。这种误差会随着距离的增加而变大。所以联线干涉测量的距离一般被限制在几十公里以内,至今为止,最长的间距为217公里。,甚长基线干涉测量示意图,VLBI,VLBI现状及前景 目前全球约
22、有4050个VLBI站 IVS(International VLBI Service for Geodesy&Astrometry)EVN FAST&SKA,The objectives of IVS areto provide a service to support geodetic,geophysical,and astrometric research and operational activities;to promote research and development activities in all aspects of the geodetic and astrometr
23、ic VLBI technique;and to interact with the community of users of VLBI products and to integrate VLBI into a global Earth observing system.,IVS(International VLBI Service for Geodesy&Astrometry)is an international collaboration of organizations which operate or support Very Long Baseline Interferomet
24、ry(VLB I)components.,IVS(International VLBI Service for Geodesy&Astrometryhttp:/ivscc.gsfc.nasa.gov/,IVS provides data and products for the scientific community.Some of the products area terrestrial reference frame(TRF),the international celestial reference frame(ICRF),and Earth orientation paramete
25、rs(EOP).,All IVS data and products are archived in data centers and are publically available for research in related areas of geodesy,geophysics and astrometry.,IVS Network Station,空间大地测量方法VLBI,http:/ivscc.gsfc.nasa.gov/,The European VLBI Network(EVN)was formed in 1980 by five of the major radio ast
26、ronomy institutes in Europe and Geodetic Dept of the University of Bonn.The founding radio astronomy institutes were:MPIfR in Bonn,Germany IRA in Bologna,Italy ASTRON in Dwingeloo,The Netherlands OSO in Onsala,Sweden Jodrell Bank Observatory(formerly NRAL)near Manchester,UK,EVN:European VLBI Network
27、 http:/www.evlbi.org,EVN:European VLBI Networkhttp:/www.evlbi.org,The European VLBI Network(EVN),http:/,上海天文台VLBI,中科院乌鲁木齐天文台VLBIhttp:/,25m射电望远镜南山观测基地VLBI站目前是全球和我国重要的地面参考点,射电望远镜接收系统的综合水平和观测状态已达到欧洲网的中上等水平。,云南天文台40m射电天文望远镜 2006年安装,已经开始运行,http:/,中科院云南天文台VLBI,密云站50m天线是我国目前最大的射电天线,它的建成和投入使用,将为国家天文台,乃至中国科学
28、院承担更多的国家任务奠定基础条件。,中科院国家天文台VLBI,http:/,在“嫦娥工程”中,共有4台射电望远镜对“嫦娥一号”进行精确定位和观测,分别位于国家天文台北京密云地面站、云南天文台、上海天文台和乌鲁木齐天文台,共同组成VLBI网,结合上海天文台的数据处理中心共同组成测轨分系统对绕月探测卫星进行联合精确定位。这样一个网所构成的望远镜分辨率相当于口径为3000多公里的巨大的综合望远镜,测角精度可以达到百分之几角秒,甚至更高。VLBI测轨分系统的具体任务是获得卫星的VLBI测量数据,包括时延、延迟率和卫星的角位置,并参与轨道的确定和预报。具体的任务有完成卫星在24小时、48小时周期的调相轨
29、道段的测轨任务,完成卫星在地月转移轨道段、月球捕获轨道段以及环月轨道段的测轨任务。,“嫦娥一号”所获取的数据将源源不断地以无线电波的方式传送回地球,此时,四个观测站形成的“甚长基线阵”,将这些无线电波接收,然后集中发送到北京总部,经过科学家解码,还原成图片和数据,以此作为认识月球的依据。,世界上最大的单口径500米的球面射电望远镜(five-hundred-meter aperturesphericaltelescope,简称FAST),被科学家形象地形容为山谷中的“天眼”,科学家希望它能接收到来自某种“地外文明”发出的信号。已被国家发改委立项,作为国家重大科技基础设施项目将在黔南布依族苗族自
30、治州建设。该项目总投资6.27亿元,建设期为5年。项目拟采用我国科学家独创的设计和贵州省独特的喀斯特地形条件和极端安静的电波环境,建造一个500米口径球面射电天文望远镜,形成具有国际先进水平的天文观测与研究平台,为我国开展暗物质和暗能量本质、宇宙的起源和演化、太空生命起源和寻找地外文明等研究活动提供重要支持。它的建设对于改善我国科技基础设施条件,提升自主创新能力,增强科技竞争能力,促进原始性创新成果产生,带动高新技术发展具有极其重要的战略意义。,我国的FAST计划,FAST望远镜模似图,贵阳一处喀斯特洼地,SKA计划 International SKA Project Office http:
31、/www.skatelescope.org/,平方公里阵射电望远镜(Square Kilometre Array 简写为 SKA)是计划中的下一代巨型射电望远镜阵,工作在0.1025GHz的波段,有效接收面积可以达到大约1平方千米,SKA的灵敏度将比目前世界上最大的望远镜高2个数量级。其将由上千台天线组成,其中有一半天线位于中央直径5公里的区域内,另有四分之一的天线散布在周围150公里的区域内,其余的分布在大约3000公里的范围内。目前,SKA的选址还未最终确定,澳大利亚、阿根廷、南非和中国都已被列入待选目标地之列。由于该望远镜的灵敏度极高,因此其建设地点必须远离大城市和各种无线电噪声源,同时
32、,气候条件和地形也是必须考虑的因素。目前SKA已到其选址的关键时刻。,建造它的主要目的是为了查明银河系中的重要结构和星系的演化过程。SKA可以观测到宇宙空间一向不为人觉察的长波辐射。专家们解释说,在宇宙大爆炸时期形成的第一批星系至今仍在放射着长波,如果捕捉到这些上百亿年前产生的辐射,便有可能揭示宇宙的演化进程。此外,科学家们同时表示,SKA还将被用来观测宇宙中的一些“暗物质”分布在星系间的稀薄气体。由于SKA在观测范围和灵敏度方面都远远超过了目前已有的同类型望远镜,其还有可能被用来搜索某些高智慧外星生物发出的微弱无线电波,以证实人们长期以来对外星生命的推测。,SKA是目前最为庞大的国际科技合作
33、项目之一,其耗资总额将达到10亿美元之巨。2008年,SKA选址将确定。十年后,SKA将建成。2020年,SKA全面运行。届时,人类探索太空的视界将大大扩大,因为SKA的接收能力将比现有的射电望远镜强大50倍,巡天的速度更是超越现有射电望远镜1万倍。SAT的体积在世界望远镜史上前无古人。目前世界上最大的固定射电望远镜是美国阿雷西堡望远镜,直径为305米;最大的全可动射电望远镜是30年前德国建成的100米口径射电望远镜和不久前美国西弗吉尼亚州建成的探测面为110100米的射电望远镜。这几乎已成为大型射电望远镜的工程极限。,2000,Site ranking,1%SKAScience,ISSCMo
34、As,SiteSelection,ScienceCase published,Inter-governmental discussions,First SKA WorkingGroup,Initial concept,2000,10%SKAScience,929604050607080910141822,Feasibility study,Full arrayBuild 100%SKA,SKAComplete,Phase 1Build10%SKA,Conceptexposition,Define SKA System,SKA timeline,Optimise Reference Design
35、,Construct 1%SKA“pathfinders”,SKA计划的射电望远镜阵列,澳大利亚的试验场,SKA Animation动画演示,请用鼠标点击上述画面,Part 3.SLR-Satellite Laser Ranging,激光测卫示意图,1)测距原理 激光测卫(Satellite Laser Ranging)系统目前的测距精度可达1cm左右。,图3-3 激光测卫原理图,GFZ 的 POTSDAM-2 人卫激光测距仪,2)激光测距仪,3)激光反射棱镜,神舟4号棱镜组,CHAMP、GRACE卫星棱镜,Starlette卫星,4)激光测距卫星 如前所述,凡是安装了后向反射棱镜,可对其进行
36、激光测距的卫星称为激光测距卫星。STARLETTE卫星 该卫星是由法国航天局CNES于1975年2月6日发射的。该卫星是由20个三角平面组成的正20面体。直径为24cm,质量为47.295kg。,Lageos-1卫星,Lageos卫星 Lageos卫星是由NASA研制发射的,其中Lageos-1是1976年5月4日发射的,Lageos-2是1992年10月23日发射的。,EGS(Ajisai)卫星,EGS(Ajisai)卫星 Ajisai是日本于1986年发射的。卫星上安装了120组(1436块)反射棱镜,卫星的轨道倾角为50,卫星在高度为1500km左右的几乎是圆形的轨道上运行。信号往返传播
37、的时间为1020ms。该卫星的优点是亮度大,目视星等达1.53.5,肉眼易见。,ETALON卫星 Etalon-1和Etalon-2是前苏联于1989年1月和5月发射的。卫星的直径为129.4cm,质量为1415kg,卫星表面安放了306组反射棱镜,每组中均含14个角反射棱镜,其中有6组为锗反射镜。,Etalon_1卫星,其它可进行SLR的卫星有T/P卫星、GPS卫星,TOPEX/Poseidon,GPS,PRN05(SVN35)and PRN06(SVN36)are equipped with corner-cube reflectors for satellite laser rangin
38、g(SLR).Analyse SVs Clock Error and Ephemeris Error Check the Ranging Precision of SV,5)现状及前景:目前全球约有50个左右的SLR固定台站以及少量的流动台站。测距精度已达到13cm.。少数台站已达到亚厘米级的精度水平。,ILRS:International Laser Ranging Servicehttp:/ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/,1981年以来我国在上海、武汉、长春、北京、昆明等地先后建立了SLR站。测距精度达到亚厘米级水平,并实现了白天观测。我国还自行研制了流动型SLR站TROS-1。,
39、武汉SLR台站,中国流动卫星激光测距仪 Beijing(TROS),上海天文台60厘米卫星激光望远镜,SLR2000 系统,NASA下一代的完全自动运行的SLR台站,单点测距精度优于3mm,预计在不久的将来激光测距的精度还可能有较大的提高,达到mm级的测距精度。此外也有人提出在卫星上安装激光测距仪,在地面上安装廉价的反射棱镜以组成空基激光测距系统的建设。如能实现将进一步推动激光测距技术在大地测量中的广泛应用。,http:/cddis.nasa.gov/slr2000/,Mission&Application,Geodetic MissionsThe geodetic satellites ar
40、e so named for their contribution to determinate and measurements the exact positions of points on the earths surface;the shape and size of the earth;and the variations of the terrestrial gravity and magnetic fields,Earth Sensing MissionsThe earth sensing satellites carry experiments designed to sen
41、se the earth(i.e acquire data on worldwide environmental changes such as the green house effect,ozone layer depletion,tropical rain forest deforestation,and abnormal climatic conditions),in order to contribute to international global environmental monitoring,Radio Navigation MissionsThe radio naviga
42、tion satellites(Global Positioning System(GPS),and GLObalnaya Navigatsionnay Sputnikovaya Sistema(GLONASS)are United States and Russian satellite constellations,respectively.,Experimental MissionsThe experimental satellites carry diverse experiments that do not fit into one of the other mission clas
43、sifications(i.e.geodetic,earth sensing,positioning).These satellites are irregularly shaped objects in relatively low altitude orbits,Part 4.Satellite Altimetry,通过SLR、GPS、DORIS等手段精确确定测高卫星的运行轨道,同时又利用安置在卫星上的雷达测高仪测定至瞬时海水面间的垂直距离来测定地球重力场,研究海洋学、地球物理学中的各种物理现象的方法和技术称为卫星测高(Satellite Altimetry)。,卫星测高示意图,1)测高卫
44、星 至今为止,在全球已发射如下测高卫星 Skylab,Geos3,Seasat,Geosat,Ers-1,Topex/Poseidon,Ers-1,GFO,Envisat,Jason-1。,表1 部分测高卫星的基本参数,TOPEX/Poseidon卫星,GFO卫星,Envisat卫星,Janson卫星,TOPEX/Poseidon 卫星上的高度计,Part 5.Doppler Technology,1)Transit/NNSS(Navy Navigation Satellite System),子午卫星系统(Transit)是美国海军研制、开发、管理的第一代卫星导航定位系统,又称为导航卫星系统
45、(NNSSNavy Navigation Satellite System)。,该系统采用多普勒测量的方法来进行导航和定位。,Transit卫星及星座参数:卫 星 数:6 颗轨 道 数:6 个轨道夹角:30 轨道倾角:90 卫星高度:1075 km运行周期:107 min载波频率:400、150 MHz,Transit Constellation,子午卫星星座,Oscar,Nova,子午卫星,多普勒定位示意图4,导航定位原理,2)DORIS(Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite),DORIS系统的组成
46、,DORIS跟踪系统示意图,DORIS is a dual-frequency Doppler system that can be included as a host experiment on various space missions,Spot-2,-3,-4,-5,Topex/Poseidon,Jason,ENVISAT and Cryosat in the future.The system at the present time started operation in 1990.Its permanently tracked network includes 50 beaco
47、ns evenly distributed on the earth,including stations on all major tectonic plates.The station positioning results have a precision of 1-2 cm,and daily polar motion determinations have a precision of about 1-2 milliarcseconds.The geocenter location can also be precisely monitored at 1-2 cm.Internati
48、onal DORIS Service(IDS).,Map of the current DORIS network(2008.02),International DORIS Service(IDS)http:/ids.cls.fr/,Satellites&missions(2003),Doris can be used in six different fields:Orbit Determination(orbitography)Earth Gravity Field、Rotation studies、Precise location、Satellite navigation Time-ta
49、gging,ENVISAT-1 DORIS stations visibilities,elevation 12,and satellite tracks for 1 day(2007-03-07):,九峰 Doris Station,中科院测地所Jiufeng State,Hubei Country,CHINA http:/ids.cls.fr/html/doris/stations/station.php3?code=JIUB,Part 6.SST-Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking,高低模式(HL)低低模式(LL)高高模式(LL),高低模式(HL),1).CH
50、AMP(CHAllenging Mini-Satellite Payload),GPS-CHAMP high-low satellite-to-satellite and ground based laser tracking,采用高低跟踪模式;由 GFZ管理,执行重力场、磁场和大气探测研究,http:/www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb1/op/champ/,Front Side view of CHAMP with location of instruments,Rear Side view of CHAMP with location of instruments,JPLs Bl