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1、III.Second Language Acquisition,1.What is Second Language Acquisition and Research?2.Theories of L2 learning Linguistic Perspectives Psychological Perspectives(behaviorism,cognitive psychology,connectionism,multidimensional model)Interactionist Perspective Sociocultural Perspectives3.Learner Languag
2、e 语际语 4.Instruction and Second Language Acquisition,Second Language Acquisition,1.What is Second Language Acquisition and Research?Second language acquisition research has both theoretical and practical importance.Theoretical importance:related to our understanding of how language is represented in
3、the mind and whether there is a difference between the way language is acquired and processed and the way other kinds of information are acquired and processed.74,Second Language Acquisition,Practical importance:arises from the assumption that an understanding of how language are learned will lead t
4、o more effective teaching practice.In a broader context,a knowledge of second language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programs for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults.75,Second L
5、anguage Acquisition,1.The Grammar-Translation Method(structuralism)2.The Audio-Lingual Method(听说法)(structuralism,behaviorism s-r)3.Communicative Language Teaching（交际法语言教学）(cognitive science,linguistic competent,communicative competent)4.Content-based,Task-based Approaches（学科性方法）(任务性方法)(cognitive sci
6、ence,functional view of language,comprehensible input,output,motivation)75+1,Second Language Acquisition,Gass s framework for investigating L2 acquisition explicit knowledgeL2 noticed comprehended intake implicit L2Input input input knowledge output,Second Language Acquisition,NoticingIn order for s
7、ome feature of language to be acquired,it is not enough for the learner to be exposed to it through comprehensible input.The learner must actually notice what it is in that input that makes the meaning.This idea has raised a considerable amount of interest in the context of instructed second languag
8、e learning.86xx p15,Second Language Acquisition,Noticing is of considerable theoretical importance because it accounts for which features in the input are attended to and so become intake.For noticed input to become intake,learners have to carry out a comparison of what they have observed in the inp
9、ut and what they themselves are typically producing on the basis of their current interlanguage system.This is a conscious process,referred to as noticing the gap.,Second Language Acquisition,Implicit learning is coming to learn the underlying structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process
10、 which takes place naturally,simply and without conscious operations.Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.,Second Language Acquisition,The relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge,then,continues to be a key issue.One possibility,
11、is that explicit knowledge functions as a facilitator,helping learners to notice features in the input which they would otherwise miss and also to compare what they notice with what they produce.In a sense,explicit knowledge may contribute to intake enhancement,but it will only be one of several fac
12、tors that does this.,Second Language Acquisition,2.Theories of L2 learningInternal and external factors in the learning processa.Some linguistics:Language acquisition is based on the presence of a specialized module of human mind containing innate knowledge of principles common to all languages.76,S
13、econd Language Acquisition,b.In contrast,most psychologists have argued that language is processed by general cognitive mechanisms that are responsible for a wide range of human learning and information processing and requires no specialized module.77,Second Language Acquisition,A.Linguistic Perspec
14、tives UG grammarLAD:Chomsky inferred that children must have an innate language faculty.This faculty,originally referred to as the language acquisition device.And later UG which was said to contain general principles underlying all languages.语言习得机制.二十世纪60年代和70年代乔姆斯基及其他学者认为每一个正常的人生来就有一个语言习得机制。语言习得机制包
15、括人类语言本质及结构的基本知识。78,Second Language Acquisition,UG 普遍语法 According to UG theory acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to particular language,e.g.English,French or German,and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.根据普遍语法理论，习得一种语言意味着将普遍语法的原则应用于某一具体的语言，如英语，法语或德语
16、，并理解哪个值适用于哪个参数。79xx,Second Language Acquisition,In the second language acquisition the investigations have centered around the resetting of parameters.For example,Japanese speakers acquiring English would need to reset the head parameter from a head-last to a head-first position.eg.watashiwa Nihonji
17、n desu 第二语言习得的调查以参数的重新设定为主。例如说日语的人学英语就得重新设定中心参数,使之从中心词为后,调整至中心词为先。79xx,Second Language Acquisition,UG principleThe principle of structure-dependency（结构依存关系）which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence(s
18、uch as words,morphemes,etc.)Examples:(a)She bought a new car yesterday.(b)(My friend)bought a new car yesterday.(c)(The friend that I met in America last year)bought a new car yesterday.(d)(The friend I am closest to and who was so supportive when I lost my job two years ago)bought a new car yesterd
19、ay.79+,Second Language Acquisition,Your cat is friendly.Is your cat friendly?The car hit the girl.The girl was hit by the car.Structure-dependency can therefore be put forward as a universal principle of language:whenever elements of the sentence are moved to form passive,questions,or whatever,such
20、movement takes account of the structural relationships of the sentence rather than the linear order of words.79+,Second Language Acquisition,The UG theory claims that the fact that children never use computationally simple rules based on linear ordering,but instead use computationally complex struct
21、ure-dependent rules,is because the hierarchical nature of human language is part of the human mind,and does not have to be learnt as such.,Second Language Acquisition,ParameterIf the structure-dependency principle seems common to all languages,which are all organized hierarchically in terms of phras
22、es(Noun-Phrases,Verb Phrase,Prepositional-phrase,etc.),there are many other rules which differ between languages.Otherwise,all languages would work in the same way,which is obviously not the case.This is where parameters come in.,Second Language Acquisition,The head parameter deals with the way in w
23、hich phrases themselves are structured.Each phrase has a central element,called a head;in the case of a Noun-Phrase,the head is the noun,in the case of a Verb-Phrase it is the verb,in the case of a Prepositional-Phrase,it is the preposition,and so on.,Second Language Acquisition,For example,in the N
24、oun-phrase the girl with blue trousers,the head-noun girl appears to the left of the complement with blue trousers;in the Verb-Phrase hit the girl,the head hit appears to the left of its complement the girl;in the Prepositional-Phrase with blue trousers,the head with is on the left of its complement
25、 blue trousers.(head-parameter),Second Language Acquisition,English is a head-first(中心词位于片语之首)language,because the head of the phrase always appear before its complements.Japanese,on the other hand,is a head-last language,because the complements precede the head inside phrases.Nihon ni Japan in(head
26、-last)中心词位于片语之尾,Second Language Acquisition,Three ways of looking at UG(1)UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.The learners knowledge of L1 is irrelevant.(2)The learners Core Grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2,particularly not to the adult learner.(3)UG is partl
27、y available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2.There are other factors and they may interfere with the UG influence.80,Second Language Acquisition,B.Psychological Perspectivesa.behaviorismFor much of the first half of the twentieth century,behaviorism dominated psychology and educati
28、on and,consequently,theories of L2 learning and teaching.Behaviorism was based on the view that all learning including language learning occurs through a process of imitation,practice,reinforcement and habit formation.81xx,Second Language Acquisition,Behaviorism came under attack when Chomsky questi
29、oned the notion that children learn their first language by repeating what they hear in the surrounding environment.He argued that children produce novel and creative utterances ones that they would never have heard in their environment.82xx,Second Language Acquisition,b.Cognitive PsychologyA branch
30、 of psychology which deals with the study of the nature and learning of systems of knowledge,particularly those processes involved in thought,perception,comprehension,memory,and learning.In recent years cognitive psychology has been related to mentalistic approaches to linguistics,especially Chomsky
31、s TG grammar,which links language structure to the nature of human cognitive processes.83,Second Language Acquisition,Cognitive psychologists hypothesized that second language acquisition,like other learning,requires the learners attention and effort whether or not the learner is fully aware of what
32、 was being attended to.Some information processing theories suggested that language,like other skilled activity,is first acquired through intentional learning of what is called declarative knowledge,and then,through practice,the declarative knowledge can become“procedural knowledgeOnce language itse
33、lf is largely automatic,attention can be focused on the content.The information processing model offers a useful explanation as to why learners in the initial phases of learning seem to put so much effort into understanding and producing language.83+1,Second Language Acquisition,“Declarative knowled
34、ge 陈述性知识(factual knowledge,in cognitive psychology and learning theory)vs.procedural knowledge.过程性知识.Declarative knowledge is information that consists of consciously known facts,concepts or ideas that can be stored as propositions.For example,an account of the tense system in English can be present
35、ed as a set of statements,rules,or facts,i.e.it can be learned as declarative knowledge(factual knowledge).This can be contrasted with procedural knowledge,that is knowledge concerning things we know how to do but which are not consciously known,such as“how to ride a bicycle”,or how to speak German”
36、.84,Second Language Acquisition,Procedural knowledge is acquired gradually through practice,and underlies the learning of skills.Many aspects of second language learning consist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge.Other theorists make a similar contrast between controlled and automatic p
37、rocessing.controlled processing(not necessarily intentional)授控处理(e.g.Learn to drive;learn English)automatic processing(occurring quickly and with minimal attention and effort)自动处理(e.g.drive to carry out a task;use English to communicate)85,Second Language Acquisition,The learners four tasks1.Analysi
38、sThe learner has to segment(切分成语段）the stream of acoustic signals into constituent（构成成份）units and to bring the latter into line with the parallel information on concurrent events which constitutes the situational context of the utterance.2.SynthesisThe learner has to try to put the sounds and words h
39、e has leant together in order to produce and comprehend L2 utterances.86,Second Language Acquisition,3.Embedding(嵌入）The news that(he had got married)surprised his friends.The learner has to make utterances fit the contextsituational and linguistic in which they occur.This requires a sort of balance
40、of linguistic and contextual information.4.MatchingThe learner must continuously compare his current language variety with the target variety.87,Second Language Acquisition,c.Connectionism 连接主义指将一种基于数字计算而不是符号操作、模拟认知功能的计算框架应用于语言学。模拟假设在大脑中起作用的各种结构和过程，网络的处理单位叫做神经元或节点,每一个单位从与其连接的其他单位获取信息，从而或被激活或被抑制。87xx
41、,Second Language Acquisition,Many connectionism studies provide evidence to support associative accounts of learning.There is growing interest in this explanation for second language acquisition.Related to this approach is the observation that much of the language that even highly proficient speaker
42、s produce consists of chunks or strings of language that have a high probability of occurring together.Researchers working within these frameworks are proposing that language is represented in the mind as a very large number of linguistic units with varying degrees of likelihood of co-occurrence,rat
43、her than as a set of linguistic rules for creating novel sentences.88xxeg,Second Language Acquisition,xx d.Multidimensional Model 多维模型The syntactic and morphological features were referred to as developmental.Other features referred to as variational,appeared to be learned by some but not all learne
44、rs and,in any case,did not appear to be learned in a fixed sequence.89,Second Language Acquisition,Developmental:Second language learners acquire certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages.Variational:L2 is not learned in a fixed sequence.90-,Second Language Acquisi
45、tion,Because each stage reflected an increase in complexity,a learner had to grasp one stage before moving to the next,and it was not possible to skip a stage.One of the pedagogical implications drawn from the research related to the Multidimensional Model is the Teachability Hypothesis that learner
46、s can only be taught what they are psycholinguistically ready to learn.(e.g.present tense,present continuous tense,future tense,past tense,present perfect tense)90,Second Language Acquisition,C.Interactionist Perspectives(互动论)Some theorists who work primarily within a second language acquisition fra
47、mework assume that a great deal of language learning takes place through social interaction,at least in part because interlocutors adjust their speech to make it more accessible to learners.L1 studies showed that children are often exposed to a specialized speech which is tailored to their linguisti
48、c and cognitive abilities(that is,child-directed speech).91xx,Second Language Acquisition,However,in Longs view,it was not in simplifying the linguistic elements of speech that interlocutors helped learners acquire language.Rather it was in modifying the interaction patterns,by paraphrasing,repeatin
49、g,slowing or otherwise working with the L2 speaker to ensure that meaning is communicated.Thus,he hypothesized,interactional adjustments improve comprehension,and comprehension allows acquisition.(caregiver,parental language)92,Second Language Acquisition,Long went on to propose an extension of Kres
50、hens Input Hypothesis,which has come to be called the Interaction Hypothesis,and has attracted continuing attention.Long conducted a study of sixteen NS-NS and sixteen NS-NNS pairs,carrying out the same set of face-to-face oral tasks(informal conversion,giving instructions for games,playing the game
