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1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicat
2、ion. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.语言识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 （创造性） Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 书上1.1.3
3、语言学界里几个重要的概念区别（5-12）：5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language chang
4、e through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a sp
5、eech community. 10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知
6、识点 1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at onc
7、e. 判断题 6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。 三、问答题 1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? 语言学范畴内容知识Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in
8、the worlds languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subf
9、ield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. Others 非考试要求内容2.why do we say language is arbitrary? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no in
10、trinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and
11、not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based
12、on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。 4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present
13、-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。 5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys
14、for the following reasons: Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6.how is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys ? Both S
15、aussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychol
16、ogical point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 6.the distinction between langue and parole? langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation. 1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defi
17、ned as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics（同问答题第一题）语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is call
18、ed phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The s
19、tudy of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is sai
20、d to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is
21、 supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, syn
22、chronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have on
23、ly the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th cen
24、tury.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is t
25、o abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of th
26、e rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、 定义 书上 2.2 Phonetics（语音学）（定义）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language
27、: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） 书上2.3 Phonology 定义Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1.宽式音标Broad transcription Th
28、e transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a co
29、ndition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vow
30、els. 8.音位变体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 二、知识点 5. The tongue：The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised t
31、owards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.书上2.3.4.1 Sequential rules序列规则例子 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the fi
32、rst phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w 10.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题 1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study o
33、f speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical proper
34、ties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。 听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。 声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。 2.how are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phone
35、tics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么? Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology desc
36、ription of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos 4.书上2.3.2 whats a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phonea s
37、peech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重
38、要? Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a langu
39、age, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 7. 2.3.4 explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule . 序列规则Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one so
40、und to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Chapter Three Morphology 形态学一、定义 1.词素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning.（定义）2.自由词素Free Morpheme Free mo
41、rphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根Root Root is the base form of a word
42、which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical c
43、lass ofwords, e.g. modern-modernize length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a
44、) Number: tables apples carsb) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) Case: John/Johns二、知识点 Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes 2.some words maybe said
45、 to contain a root morpheme. Suffix Chapter Four Syntax 句法学定义Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories-the synt
46、actic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead（中心语）- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（标志成分）- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补足成分）- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure r
