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1、Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学,Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.Morphology falls into two categories:inflectional morphology(study of inflections)and lexical/derivational morphology(study of word formation).,Basic units of mea
2、ning,Morphemes 形位WordsWord groups ClausesSentences,Words,Vocabulary:A list of words for a language.Lexicology(词典学)：Subdiscipline of semantics that investigates and describes the structure of the vocabulary of a language.Lexicon（某语言或学科、某人或群体使用的）全部词汇:A list of words for a language;its morphological(fo
3、rms)and semantic(meanings)aspects.,Definitions of Word,A word is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Three main senses of“word”are usually distinguished(though terminology varies):,Three main senses of“wo
4、rd”1,1.A physically definable unit；a series of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.(形体可定义的单元)：-Phonological:They are friends.-Orthographic:Theyre friends.,Three main senses of“word”2,2.The common factor underlying a set of forms（隐含于一组词形中的共同因素),which are plainly variants of the sam
5、e unit,such as walk,walks,walking,walked.The underlying unit is often referred to as a lexeme词位,which is a unit of vocabulary,an item listed in a dictionary(a lexical item).,Three main senses of“word”2(add),Lexeme(词位)In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word,the term lexeme is used by some l
6、inguists to refer to the minimal distinctive unit in the semantic system of a language.The lexeme is thus postulated as the abstract unit underlying such sets of grammatical variants as walk,walks,walking,walked,or big,bigger,biggest.Idiomatic phrases,by this definition,are also considered lexemes(e
7、.g.kick the bucket(=“die”).Lexemes are the units which are conventionally listed in dictionaries as separate entries.,Three main senses of“word”3,3.A grammatical unit(一个语法单位)：In terms of lexicogrammar 词法学，word is a level between morpheme and word group in the hierarchy of grammatical units,which ris
8、es from morpheme at the bottom up to the sentence at the top.sentence,clause,word group(phrase),word，morpheme,The identification of words,Besides the three senses of“word”,there are other factors which help us to identify words.1.Stability(稳定性):words are the most stable of all linguistic units,in re
9、spect of their internal structure.,The identification of words,(2)Relative uninterruptibility(相对的不可隔断性):new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in the word.(i.e.outlaws,touch-me-not)(3)A minimum free form:a word is the smallest unit which can constitute,by i
10、tself,a complete utterance,The morpheme is the minimal distinctive unit of meaning,the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.,Morpheme 1 形位/词素 p.
11、52,Morpheme 2,A single word maybe composed of one or more than one morphemes:grammaticality gramma(r)+tical+ityungentlemanliness un+gentle+man+li+nessmodernisations modern+is(e)+ation+sbabysitting baby+sit(t)+ingdisinterested dis+interest+ed,Free and Bound Morphemes 52,Free morphemes(自由形位)can stand
12、alone.Free morphemes are single-morpheme words or roots of words,such as“Friend,stop”;“山，水，人”Bound morphemes(依附形位/粘着语素/附加语素)cannot stand alone.They are affixes to be added to the stems formed by roots to construct words.e.g.:-s,-ed,-ing,-er;阿姐，木头，初一,Free root and bound root 1,A root is the base form
13、 of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.It may be a free morpheme as well as a bound one.When the root of the word is a free morpheme,we say the word has a free root,such as e.g.hopeful,interpersonalWhen it is a bound morpheme,we say the word has a bound root,such
14、as e.g.precede,receive,submit,retain,recur,Free root and bound root 2,Roots are usually free in English,but there are also a few bound ones(of Latin and Greek origin.)-pel(compel,dispel,expel,propel,repel)-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive)-tain(retain,maintain,contain)-vert(convert,divert,invert,),So
15、me verbs and nouns in English that have irregular forms may have both bound and free roots.sleep/sli:p/,slept/slep/-/t/(/sli:p/and/slep/being allomorphs),Derivational and inflectional morphemes(p.55),Some derivational morphemes change the grammatical category of words(or grammatical class of words)a
16、nd others dont.一些派生词素可以改变词性）E.g.educate v.+ion education n.sufficient adj.Insufficient;physic 医术.Physician n,Inflectional morphemes cannot change the grammatical category of words.曲折词素不改变词性。They show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.E.g.Happy happier,Word Classes(parts of speech),Open c
17、lasses(membership indefinite or unlimited)Noun,adjective,full verb,adverbClosed classes(membership fixed or limited)Preposition,pronoun,determiner,conjunction,modal verb,primary verb(do,have,be)Additional classesNumeral,interjection,Root,Stem and Base(add),A root is the base form of a word that cann
18、ot further be analysed.base is sometimes used in the place of root to indicate the same thing.A stem is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.,Roots and Stems(add),de-centr(e)-al-iz(e)-ed,affix root affix affix affix,stem,stem,stem,stem,stem,girl friend-s,root root af
19、fix,decentralized:,girlfriends:,Root,affix and stem,A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.It may be a free morpheme or a bound one.Affix can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).Affixes belong to the type of bound m
20、orphemes.,Root,affix and stem,Affixes are generally classified into three subtypes:prefix,suffix and infix,according to their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.Affixes may also be divided into inflectional and derivational types.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme
21、s to which an affix can be added.,1.Morphemes can be represented in terms of morphemic shapes.For example,we can say the word maps contains two morphemes:the morpheme map and the morpheme-s(expressing pluriality).,Transcription of morphemes,Transcription of morphemes,Morphemes can also be talked abo
22、ut in terms of phonetic forms.For example,we can say the word/mps/contains two morphemes:the morpheme/mp/and the morpheme/s/(expressing pluriality).,Morpheme,morph and allomorph p.56,Morphemes（形位）are abstract units,which are realised in particular contexts by specific forms,known as morphs（语素）.The v
23、ariant forms of a morpheme that appear in different contexts are called the allomorphs(变素；词素/词形变体)of the morpheme(or morpheme alternants).Some morphemes have more than one allomorph.But some have only one form in all contexts.,形位、语素、变素,在不同的音位、语音和文字组合中，形位morpheme可以兑现成相应的语素morph，或者可以有一个以上的变素。如果一个形位在不同
24、的局部语境中可以兑现成一个以上的语素，这些语素就是变素allomorph.,Allomorphs,An allomorph is phonologically conditioned when its form is dependent on the neighbouring phonemes.It is lexically conditioned when its form is an arbitrary part of another vocabulary item.,Allomorphs in English,The morphemeplural in English is realis
25、ed by at least 7 different allomorphs:plural=-s-z-iz-a-n i:The allomorphs-s,-z,and-iz are phonologically conditioned.The others are lexically conditioned,Allomorphs in English p.56,Plurality-s-z-iz-ai-i:-n-Past-t-d-id-Negative Prefixil-in-im-ir-,Free variation and complementary distribution,The plur
26、al of the word formula（is formed either by changing the final vowel to/-i:/as in formulae or adding/-z/as in formulas.The two morphs/-i:/and/-z/are in free variation.,Free variation and complementary distribution,/-z/,/-s/and/-iz/are in complementary distribution because/-z/only occurs after voiced
27、phonemes except sibilants;/-s/only occurs after voiceless phonemes except sibilants;/-iz/only occurs after sibilants咝音,Questions 1,Define the terms and illustrate with appropriate examples:Free morpheme,bound morphemeMorph,allomorph,Root,stemDerivational morphemes,inflectional morpheme,Questions 2,B
28、ased on your understanding of Morphology,please make some comment on Bloomfields definition of a word:“A word,then,is a free form which does not consist entirely of 2 or more lesser forms.In brief,a word is a minimum free form”.,Word formation p.57,1.Compounding 合成法Lookers-on2.Derivation 派生法Sad sadn
29、ess3.Conversion 转化法Guess,a guess4.Backformation 逆生法Donation,donate5.clipping/shortening/abbreviation 缩略法,Demonstration,demo6.Blending 拼缀法Brunch:breakfast+lunch7.acronym:首字母拼音词APEC8.Intialism首字母缩略词GPS9.Borrowing 借词法 kung fu,Compounding,When two words are in the same grammatical category,the compound
30、will often be in this category.E.g.Ice-creamWhen they are not,the class of the second or final word will decide the grammatical category.E.g.GreenhouseCompounds often have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence.E.g.redcoat,Break up words into separate morphemes and explain t
31、hem in terms of free/bound morpheme,stem,free/bound root and inflectional affix and derivational affix:discouraged(courage,dis,ed)commitment(mit,com,ment)internationalism(nation,al,inter,ism)girlfriends(girl,friend,s),Questions 1,More than one process of word formation is involved in the creation of
32、 each of the underlined words.Can you identify them?a.The decision was made shortsightedly.b.Problems with the project have snowballed.c.He finally got an OK from his boss.d.Unfortunately,television conveys no sense of morality since it is itself amoral.,Questions 2,Is there any regularity of meanin
33、gs associated with the derivational affixes en,-able,un-,re-in the following words?shorten,blacken,golden,deepen,soften,woodenlaughable,readable,breakable,reasonable,perishable,enjoyableuntie,untrue,unwind,unreal,unfold,unnatural,unman,unleash,Questions 3,Questions 4,Group assignment:Search more new words online and find out how they are formed.Each group is supposed to turn in one piece next week.,Enjoy youself in language learning!,
