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1、DRAFT of 1 April 20131.What conflict exists in your country between different types of water uses (e.g. agriculture, industry, tourism, among others)? What are the main challenges in your country concerning water resources and waste water management that impact on the realization of human rights?The
2、 following main conflicts exist among different types of water uses in Asia-Pacific: 80-90 per cent of all wastewater generated in developing countries is discharged directly into surface water bodies without any treatment (UN Water, 2008), often contaminating the drinking water supply and spreading
3、 disease. The Peoples Republic of China, had over 200 million city dwellers in 1980, but only 35 small municipal wastewater treatment plants. As a result, up to 90 per cent of the estimated 37 billion cubic metres of sewerage discharges that year remained untreated. In Shanghai alone, only 4 per cen
4、t of the estimated 5 million cubic metres of wastewater was treated. In the same city, in 1979, 96 per cent of surface water samples collected were found to be contaminated with heavy metals. Such heavily polluted water could possibly be a contributor to the rapidly rising cancer morbidity and morta
5、lity rates in the Peoples Republic of Chinas industrial regions. More examples are shown in the table 1 (ref: http:/www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-15/3-3AsiaPacific/3-5.asp). Table1: Impacts attributed to water pollution in selected citiesSource: UNESCAP (1993), State of U
6、rbanisation in Asia and the Pacific 1993 Conflicts among water users in urban and rural areas caused by the growing pace of urbanisation in Asia-Pacific countries exacerbating the problem (UN- HABITAT, 2010, http:/www.unescap.org/esd/apuf-5/documents/SACR.pdf). Inadequate amount of investments (ex.
7、impacting the level household water security in rural and urban areas): very often large sewerage systems comprising sewerage networks and sewage treatment plants are unviable for the rapidly growing towns, partly due to the required massive investments and also due to the lack of adequate capacity
8、to plan, design and operate and maintain these systems (LCGGRM, ESCAP, 2012). Different rates of water withdrawal for agriculture, domestic purposes and industry: in all subregions of Asia and the Pacific, between 60% and 90% of water withdrawal is used for agriculture. At the regional level, the pr
9、oportional use for domestic and industrial purposes rose from 13% to 22% between 1992 and 2002. For example, within South- East Asia, water use for agriculture in Myanmar and Cambodia is above 90% of the total use, whereas in Malaysia agriculture accounts for just over 60% of water use. Poor sanitat
10、ion and wastewater management in developing countries lead to the contamination of fresh water sources and is a major cause of disease and death and affects also the health of eco-systems. The economic consequences of poor sanitation and discharge of untreated wastewater to the environment are also
11、very high. For example a World Bank Study Economic Impacts of Sanitation in South East Asia (http:/www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Sanitation_Impact_Synthesis_2.pdf) WSP, 2008 carried out for the South East Asian Region found that losses in annual GDP ranged from $450 million in Cam
12、bodia to more than $6 billion in Indonesia. The relatively high costs associated with sewage collection and treatment systems often deter investments. Consequently, barring a few exceptions, like PR China, little attention has been given in developing countries to the proper collection, treatment an
13、d disposal of wastewater. Thus, there is a lack of awareness amongst policy makers on the need to address the issue of wastewater management. Other options such as off-site sanitation systems and decentralised wastewater management systems (DEWATS) are not explored due to a lack of understanding amo
14、ngst policy makers and planners and poor capacity of water and sanitation utility staff.The major challenges existing in Asia and the Pacific concerning water resources and waste water management that impact on the realization of human rights are the following: Across the region, water availability
15、varies greatly: a. For ex. South-East Asia has more than 150,000 cubic meters of available water per square kilometer, whereas the Pacific subregion (including Australia and New Zealand) has less than 30,000.b. Other Asia-Pacific subregions with high population densities have limited water availabil
16、ity per capita; c. East and North-East Asia and South and South-West Asia have less than 2,500 cubic meters per capita per year. Within the subregions, water-use patterns differ dramatically, reflecting differential levels of economic activity; Therefore, the relationship between water availability
17、and water use in each river basin is not balanced to preserve water security. In shared basins, imbalance between water availability and demand for its use can threaten multilateral cooperation and harmony among riparian States; The impacts of climate change are already being felt adversely across t
18、he Asia Pacific Region. These impacts include both severe floods and extreme low water levels in the rivers of the region. Improved sanitation and wastewater management is crucial for this region to maintain water security and enable the affected population to adapt to the impacts of climate change;
19、 Shortage of water is another challenging issue in many urban centers. But the concept of reusing and recycling water is not yet widely adopted for managing the growing water demand although it has been demonstrated that the recycling of “greywater” can reduce water demand by up to 40%; Shared water
20、 management is therefore essential in preventing conflict as well as ensuring water security, especially in the basins of the Aral Sea, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, Tarim and Mekong, each of which is shared by five to eight countries.Thus, the commitments based on awareness regarding the human rights
21、to safe drinking water and sanitation need to be progressively realized in the region with full respect for national sovereignty, which would also address the conflicts and challenges between different users and management practices. 2. How are different users prioritised in national legislation and
22、 policies? How are these priorities implemented in practices? Are there any implementation challenges? If yes, please elaborate on them and on measures taken to overcome themAsia Pacific region is diverse region, which contains different ecosystems, and different water users respectively. Therefore
23、Intergovernmetal Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) has identified major challenges in each ecosystem in Asia and the Pacific: Melting of glaciers in Himalayas, which affects in increase of flooding, and rock avalanches Decrease of freshwater availability in Central, South, East and Southeast Asia
24、 Increased flooding from the sea and, in some mega-deltas, from rivers in South, East and Southeast Asia Climate change in most developing countries Projected increase of crop yields up to 20% in East and Southeast AsiaPacific Islands are vulnerable to climate change, facing other challenges from th
25、is. At the same time, based on the water insecurity framework, ESCAP has identified water hotspots to measure and examine the indicators of water security from the environmental, economic and social perspective, and capacities of countries to achieve expected development outcomes sustainably (UNESCA
26、P, 2010). The water hotspots show whether countries capacities to manage water resources for social-economic progress are improving or declining, and in turn whether social-economic progress has provided countries means ro confront water scarcity and water-induced conflicts and disasters. In this fr
27、amework, water security is assessed according to ten indicators of water security, access to water and sanitation, water quality, and water-related disasters. Main challenges would also include outdated water saving technologies, ineffective early warning system and preventive measures, thus, differ
28、ent level of application of IWRM approaches and tools. In order to address the above mentioned issues and challenges in Asia and the Pacific the following steps were taken: Since its inception in 1996, the Global Water Partnership (GWP) has built up a network of Regional Water Partnerships. The Netw
29、ork currently comprises 13 Regional Water Partnerships and80 Country Water Partnerships, and includes more than 2,400 Partners located in 158 countries, including regional offices in Central Asia and Caucasus, China, South Asia, Southeast Asia. Today countries of the region are meeting different wat
30、er-related challenges. Some countries of Asia and the Pacific have already applied some policies, such as water pricing policy in Singapore, adaptation and introduction of environmental indicators in Kazakhstan, application of Integrated water resources management schemes in countries (Philippines,
31、Singapore) and basins (Mekong River Comission, International Fund for saving the Aral Sea), wastewater system and water reuse scheme in Australia. The three significant river basins of the region Aral Sea, Ganges-Brahmaputra, and Mekong River basins has set up the cooperation by creating organizatio
32、ns with participation of all countries included in the basin. Thus, the countries of the Aral Sea basin have established the International Fund for saving the Aral Sea (IFAS), Mekong river basin - the Mekong River Commission (MRC) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and Ganges-Br
33、ahmaputra basin - the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).Central Asia: In order to solve the problems countries of Central Asia have commited to establish International Fund for Saving the Araal Sea, which is a platform of dialogue among countries for development and implementa
34、tion of bilateral, multilateral and international agreements. Three countries among five have signed and ratified the UNECE Water Convention that is intended to strengthen national measures for the protection and ecologically sound management of transboundary surface waters and ground waters. The Co
35、nvention obliges Parties to prevent, control and reduce transboundary impact, use transboundary waters in a reasonable and equitable way and ensure their sustainable management. Parties bordering the same transboundary waters shall cooperate by entering into specific agreements and establishing join
36、t bodies. The Convention includes provisions on monitoring, research and development, consultations, warning and alarm systems, mutual assistance, and exchange of information, as well as access to information by the public. Another example is Kazakhstans legislature. The main directions of the natio
37、nal development in water field are identified in the National Development Strategy Kazakhstan-2030, which was replaced by the Strategy Kazakhstan-2050 of December 2012. The importance of providing the population with affordable drinking water is shown as a high priority for the national development.
38、 Kazakhstan has adopted the Water Code in 2005, it identifies the principles of water use and regulates relations among main water users. The main goal of the Water Code is achieving and maintenance of environmentally safe and economically optimal level of water use and conservation of water fund, w
39、ater supply and wastewater disposal for preservation and improvement of livelihoods of population and environment. Currently a draft of the Law on Drinking Water is being developed. Given draft should set basic provisions in legislation regarding peoples access to the drinking water. Yet those matte
40、rs are regulated mainly by normative acts (State Standards, sanitary regulations and standards).South Asia: In order to address challeges arose in South Asian region South Asian Association for regional cooperation (SAARC) was estableshed. The areas among all that SAARC is working on include agricul
41、ture and rural, and environment. In SAARC Charter of Democracy countries comitted to “promote sustainable development and alleviation of poverty through good governance, equitable and participatory processes” and to “encourage all democratic forces in South Asia, including elected representatives of
42、 the people, to unite against any unconstitutional change in government in any South Asian country, and work towards the restoration of democracy in keeping with the SAARC Charter”. Area Water Partnerships (AWPs, please refer at a web page: http:/www.rrcap.ait.asia/nsds/uploadedfiles/file/sa/referen
43、ce/SSDS%20SA.pdf) provide a platform to various stakeholders to interact in the water sector so as to achieve integrated water resources management (IWRM) at the local level. The AWP concept was a unique initiative in South Asia to move the partnerships to the ground level, in order to move from vis
44、ion to action. During the period 20012004, between 30 and 39 AWPs were formed in South Asia. This number varies in different reports. AWPs, developed as independent platforms for promoting IWRM at the local levels, allow the stakeholders to participate in dialogues and decision making, as well as in
45、fluence the existing policies. The role played by AWPs is documented in Global Water Partnerships (GWPs). The AWP experience in South Asia also underlines the need for local action in order to resolve IWRM problems, to keep the IWRM dialogues alive, and to bring about solutions to the emerging probl
46、ems, especially at the community level. It has been realized that these inexpensive local actions will help promote mutual trust in order to move towards higher-level dialogues and interventions. Since IWRM is considered to be best handled in a decentralized mode in a river basin/sub-basin context,
47、the AWPs operating at present are largely located on the basis of natural resource units, i.e., at the river basin or sub-basin levels. However, the AWP concept is not confined to natural basins alone. AWPs are largely but not necessarily partnerships in a natural or ecological basin, often cutting
48、across political boundaries yet remaining within the Country Water Partnership (CWP). Example of Impact on National Policy: experiences differ among AWPs in each of the five countries (Table 2). From the Indian experience, Purna River Basin Water Partnership (PRBWP) may be in a position to influence
49、 state policies, while other AWPs cannot be evaluated as these early efforts may not be visible. AWPs might not have been effective across all the regions but there could be several other organizations that have influenced policy at the state or national policy level. As a matter of fact, the effectiveness of AWPs has to be judged by the extent of their impact on policy-level issues; project activities are only short-term activities.Table 2: Imp
