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1、SAT2数理化精华 数理化，相信会有点用 CHEMISTRY Prefix nano (n) micro (m) milli (m) centi (c) deci (d) kilo (k) Power Meaning Examples of measurements nanometer (nm): wavelength of light micrometer (mm): width of a hair milliliter (mL): volume of acid in burette centimeter (cm): length of paper deciliter (dL): amoun
2、t of liquid kilogram (kg): your weight 10-9 one-billionth 10-6 one-millionth 10-3 one-thousandth 10-2 one-hundredth 10-1 one-tenth 103 one thousand times 1 gallon equals 4 quarts, 12 inches equals 1 foot, Nomenclature系统命名法 binary ionic compounds二元离子化合物 Ammonium ion Acetate ion NH4+ C2H3O2- Cyanide i
3、on Hydroxide ion Nitrate ion Chlorate ion Sulfate ion Carbonate ion Phosphate ion CN- OH- NO3- ClO3- SO42- CO32- PO43- HCO3-is called either the bicarbonate ion or the hydrogen carbonate ion HPO42-and H2PO4-.These are named hydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate, When the acid has only an eleme
4、nt following the H, use the prefix hydro-, followed by the elements root name and an -ic ending.hydrocyanic acid.HCN If the acid has an -ate polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an -ic acid. H2SO4 is sulfuric acid. When the acid has an -ite polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an -ous acid
5、 Me eat peanut butter. This corresponds to meth-, eth-, prop-, and but-, which correspond to one, two, three, and four carbons, respectively. -ane = alkane (all single bonds and saturated); CnH2n+2; saturated: it contains the maximum number of Hs -ene = alkene (contains double bond, unsaturated); Cn
6、H2n -yne = alkyne (contains triple bond, unsaturated); CnH2n-2; polyunsaturated: it contains more than one double or triple bond Naming positive ions (usually metals) Monatomic, metal, cation: simply the name of the metal from which it is derived. Al3+ is the aluminum ion (these are often referred t
7、o as group A metals). Transition metals form more than one ion; Roman numerals (in parentheses) follow the ions name. Cu2+ is copper (II) ion. Exception: mercury (I) is Hg22+, that is, two Hg+ bonded together covalently. NH4+is ammonium. Roman numerals are not usually written with silver, cadmium, a
8、nd zinc银镉锌. Arrange their symbols in alphabetical orderthe first one is 1+ and the other two are 2+. Naming negative ions (usually nonmetals or polyatomic ions) Monatomic, nonmetal, anion: add the suffix -ide to the stem of the nonmetals name. Halogens are called the halides. Cl- is the chloride ion
9、. Polyatomic anion: you must memorize the polyatomic ions name. NO2-is the nitrite ion. Naming Binary Molecular Compounds a molecular compound? a combination of nonmetals, both of which lie near each other on the periodic table. Use the following set of prefixes, and dont forget the -ide ending to t
10、he name. Subscript 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 butane丁烷C4H10 propane 丙烷C3H8 14 carbons tend to be gases at room temperature; butane and propane are among the lightest hydrocarbons and are used for fuel 510 carbons tend to be in the liquid state at room temperature; compounds that fall in this size range ar
11、e used to make gasoline and solvents 1218 carbons make up jet fuels and kerosene煤油 More than 18 carbons tend to be solids at room temperature polymer聚合物 monomer单体 Amino acids 氨基酸 polypeptide 多肽 Prefix mono- (usually used only on the second element, such as carbon monoxide or nitrogen monoxide) di- t
12、ri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca- Starch淀粉 Polyethylene聚乙烯 Polypropylene聚丙烯 PolyethyleneMany ethenes strung together with covalent bonds (ethylene is another name for ethene); shopping bags and plastic bottles are made of polyethylene. PolypropyleneMany propenes strung together; glues
13、 and carpets Polystyrene聚苯乙烯A clear, hard, brittle polymer used in CD cases; if you blow carbon dioxide into it during manufacture and you get the soft, opaque, foamy polymer used in a coffee cup. Functional Groups官能团 Hydroxyl group, OH Carboxylic acid group, COOH trichloroethanoic acid三氯乙醇酸 Amine g
14、roup, NH2 Isomer同分异构体 substitution reaction取代反应 addition reaction加成反应 muriatic acid (HCl) Brass: copper and zinc Sterling silver: silver and copper Steel: iron and carbon Bronze: copper, tin, and other metals Pewter白蜡: mixture of tin, copper, bismuth, and antimony wooden splint小木条 burning splint燃着的木
15、条 colorless, odorless无色无味 fire extinguisher灭火器 Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFC氟氯化碳 stratosphere平流层 moisture湿度 Rules for Basic Laboratory Safety Safety goggles must be worn at all times in the laboratory. No eating or drinking in the laboratory. Never taste or touch the laboratory chemicals. Always wash
16、your hands before leaving the laboratory. Wear proper clothingsafety glasses, closed-toed shoes, and an apron; tie long hair back and remove all jewelry. Always follow the written directions, and never perform an unauthorized experiment. Always add acid to water. This prevents the acid from spatteri
17、ng. Point heating test tubes away from others and yourself, and heat them slowly. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers. This prevents contamination. Always use a pipette bulb or a pipetter to transfer when using a pipette吸液管. Never use your mouth. Always use a fume hood when wo
18、rking with toxic substances. Never inhale fumes directly. Never use an open flame near flammable liquids. Dispose of chemicals in the designated disposal sitenot in the sink or trash can. fume hood 通风橱 Common Laboratory Equipment when obtaining the mass of solid chemicals, always use some type of we
19、ighing paper to protect the pan of the balance. Burette量滴管tube for measuring liquid:a glass tube with measurements marked on the side and a stopcock at the bottom. Use: in laboratories to release an accurately measured quantity of liquid. beakers are not accurate measuring instruments Remember alway
20、s to take measurements of liquids from the bottom of the meniscus filtrate滤出液 颜色反应 Ion Li+, Sr2+, Ca2+ Na+ K+ Ba2+ Cu2+ Fe3+ Ion Cu2+ Fe3+ Solution color Blue Yellow to orange (rusty) Flame color Red Yellow Purple (pink) Light green Blue-green Gold Ni2+ Green Purple Yellow Orange 色谱法Chromatography g
21、raduated cylinder量筒 A titration (also called volumetric analysis) is a laboratory procedure that usually involves either an acid and base neutralization reaction or a redox reaction The burette must be rinsed 润湿with the solution to be placed in it before filling. The equivalence point is the point i
22、n the reaction where enough titrant has been added to completely neutralize the solution being analyzed. The end point is the point during the titration where the indicator changes color. It is important to choose an indicator that has an end point that is at the same pH as your expected equivalence
23、 point. titrant滴定剂 coffee-cup calorimeter The sum of all of the potential and kinetic energy in a system is known as the internal energy of the system. Potential energy, in chemical terms, is the energy stored in chemical bonds. Enthalpy焓 the change in enthalpy of the system, DH Enthalpy of reaction
24、 (DHrxn)The amount of heat absorbed or released by the chemical reaction Enthalpy of combustion (DHcomb)The amount of heat absorbed or released by combustion (burning; usually in the presence of O2) Enthalpy of formation (DHf)The amount of heat absorbed or released when 1 mole of a compound is forme
25、d from elements in their standard states Enthalpy of fusion (DHfus)The amount of heat that must be absorbed to melt 1 mole of solid to liquid at the normal melting point Enthalpy of vaporization (DHvap)The amount of heat that must be absorbed to change 1 mole of liquid to gas at the normal boiling p
26、oint enthalpy is a state function, meaning that its value is fixed when temperature, pressure, composition, and physical form are specified Entropy (DS)熵 pellets硬丸 A calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1.00 gram of water by 1.00C, and joules are the SI units f
27、or energy; 1 calorie = 4.184 joules. molar heat capacity (J/mol-K or J/mol-C) specific heat (J/g-K). q = mCpDT where q = quantity of heat (joules or calories) m = mass in grams DT = Tf - Ti (final initial) Cp = specific heat capacity (J/g C) the specific heat of liquid water is 4.184 J/g C (or 1.00
28、cal/g C), which is unusually high (this is due to hydrogen bonding). DH = Hfinal - Hinitial All diatomic molecules are assigned zeros for the same reason, they are in the free state 葡萄糖 glucose DH = bonds broken - bonds formed The third law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of a perfect crysta
29、l at 0K is zero we can calculate the entropy of any substance thats at a temperature higher than 0K The greater the disorder or randomness in a system, the larger the entropy. The entropy of a substance always increases as it changes state from solid to liquid to gas. When a pure solid or liquid dis
30、solves in a solvent, the entropy of the substance increases. When a gas molecule escapes from a solvent, there is an increase in entropy. Entropy generally increases with increasing molecular complexity. Reactions that increase the number of moles of particles often increase the entropy of the syste
31、m. The units of entropy are J/K. The higher the S value, the more disordered the system, so a positive (+) S value is more disordered, and a S value is less disordered. Gibbs Free Energy吉普斯自由能DG = DH - TDS If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction. If G is equal to zero,
32、 the reaction is at equilibrium. If G is positive, then the reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction, but the reverse reaction will be spontaneous. for elements at standard state (pure elements at 25C and 1 atm are assigned a value of zero). During a phase change, equilibrium exists betwe
33、en phases, so if the G is zero The units for DG are the same as the units as for enthalpy: J/K. Standard state(25C and 1 atm) STP(0C and 1 atm) factors that influence reaction rate again: Concentration of the reactants Temperature (Its a general rule of thumb that a 10C increase in temperature will
34、double the reaction rate.) Presence of a catalyst Physical state of the reactants activation energy活化能 The activation energy is defined as the minimum energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction, and it is symbolized by Ea. At the peak of the activation energy hump, the reactants are in the transi
35、tion state, halfway between being reactants and forming products. This state is also known as an activated complex.活化复合物 Kc symbolizes the equilibrium constant in an aqueous solution, Kp symbolizes the partial pressures of gases in equilibrium, and Ksp symbolizes the solubility product of solids cla
36、ssified as insoluble. K 1 means that the reaction favors the products at equilibrium, while a K 1 means that the reaction favors the reactants at equilibrium Pure solids do not appear in the equilibrium expression. Pure liquids do not appear in the equilibrium expression. Water, either as a liquid o
37、r solid, does not appear in the equilibrium expression. When a reactant or product is preceded by a coefficient, its concentration is raised to the power of that coefficient in the Keq expression. When the Keq of a reaction has been multiplied by a number, the K is raised to the power of the multipl
38、ication factor (Kn) ( so if it has been multiplied by 2, K is squared, if it has been multiplied by 3, K is cubed, and so on. ) The Keq of a reaction occurring in the reverse direction is simply the inverse of the Keq of the reaction occurring in the forward direction (1/Keq). The Keq of a net react
39、ion that has two or more steps is found by the product of the Keq s for each of the steps: Ks = (K1 K2K3 . . .). forward direction正反应方向 reverse direction The activation energy is the energy that must be overcome for the reaction to proceed. Also remember that for a reaction to occur, the collisions
40、between molecules must be sufficiently energetic and of the proper geometric orientation. Stoichiometry化学计量学 Formula weight molar mass empirical formula实验式经验式 propane丙烷 Baking soda (NaHCO3) antacid解酸剂 The limiting reactant or reagent is the one that is consumed first in the chemical reaction, and it
41、s consumption halts the progress of the forward reaction. The theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product formed once the limiting reactant has been completely consumed. This assumes perfect conditions and gives a maximum amount. The actual yield is what actually occurs in the course of
42、 the reactionhow much product is actually formed. Finally, the percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield sodium bromide NaBr aluminum sulfate AlSO4 elements or compounds单质化合物 Single replacement or displacement reaction置换 Double replacement or displacement reaction复分解 pr
43、ecipitate 沉淀 Combustion reaction燃烧反应 (Bunsen burner reaction): CH4(g) + 2O2(g)CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) Hydrolysis reaction水解反应 spectator ions旁观离子 Most alkali metal compounds and compounds are soluble. , or Pb2+. Cl-, Br-, I- compounds are soluble, except when they contain Ag+, F- compounds are soluble, exce
44、pt when they contain group 2A metals. , , , and CH3COO- compounds are soluble. compounds are soluble, except when they include Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, or , , , , S2-, OH-, and O2- compounds are insoluble. . Group 2A metal oxides are classified as strong bases even though they are not very solub
45、le. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, or Fr, soluble completely ionize: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4,All other acids are weak and are written together, as molecules. halide卤化物 potassium iodide KI hydronium (H3O+) monoprotic一元酸 diprotic polyprotic amphiprotic All acids have a conjugate base, which is formed when their
46、 proton has been donated; likewise, all bases have a conjugate acid, formed after they have accepted a proton. A strong acid or base dissociates or ionizes completely in aqueous solution. A weak acid or base does not completely ionize. Hydrohalic acids: HCl, HBr, HI Nitric acid: HNO3 Sulfuric acid:
47、H2SO4 Perchloric acid: HClO4 In general, the greater the number of oxygen atoms in a polyatomic ion, the stronger the acid. hydroxides (OH), oxides of 1A and 2A metals (except Mg and Be), H-, and base the stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base, and the converse is also true. autoionization:自电离 2H2OH3O+ + OH- 10-14 strong ion-product constant,离子积常数 is 1Redox 氧化还原oxidation-reduction reaction Electrochemistry电化学 Oxidizing agent (OA)氧化剂 Reducing agent (RA) Oxidation number: The assig
