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1、英语词汇学Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic field词义关系和语义场,sense relations 语义关系,A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense,hence sense relations.一个与其他单词关联的词是在语义上与他们相关的，因而有了语义关系。The subject that have long held the interest and attention of semanticists are polysemy,homonymy,syn
2、onymy,antonymy and hyponymy.早已引起语义学家兴趣和注意力的主题有多义关系、同形同音异义关系、同义关系、反义关系和上下义关系。,6.1 Polysemy 多义关系,When a word is first coined,it is always monosemic.当一个词最初被创造出来的时候，一律是单语义词。,6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 两种多义关系的研究方法,The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt wi
3、th from two different angles:diachronic approach and synchronic approach.同一词的各种意义之间相互关联的问题可以从历时方法和共时方法两个角度来研究。,Diachronic approach 历时方法From the diachronic point of view,polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.从历时的角度来看，多义关系是一个词的语义结
4、构发展变化的结果。At the time when the word was created,it was endowed with only one meaning.This first meaning is the primary meaning.一个词在创造之初只有一个 意义，这个意义称为原始意义。With the advance of time and the development of language,it took on more and more meanings.These later meanings are called derived meanings as they
5、 are all derived from the primary meaning.随着时间的推移和语言的发展，该词逐渐取得了愈来越多的意思。这些后 来获得的意义叫派生意义，因此他们都是从原始意义中派生出来的。,Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time,say，Modern English.从共时的角度来看，多义关系可以认为是一个词的各
6、种意义在某一历史时期（比如现代英语时期）的共存。In this way,the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.从这个角度来看，一个词的基本意义就是词义的核心，叫核心义。,6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 多义词的两种发展过程,The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radi
7、ation and concatenation.词义从单义像多义发展遵循两种模式：辐射型和连锁型。,1)Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.辐射型以原始意义为中心，从原始意义发展而来的次要意义就像射线那样四处散去，The meanings are independent of one another,but can al
8、l be traced back to the central meaning.意义之间互不关联，但都可追溯到核心意义。,Concatenation,meaning linking together,is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until.in many cases,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is fi
9、nally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.连锁型 连锁型 即连接在一起，连锁型是词义发生关联变化的过程。在种个过程中，一个词的词义逐渐从原始意义连续转化，以致在很多情境况下，后起的意义项与原始意义已没有任何联系。,Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning,concatenation describes a process where each of the late
10、r meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.不像辐射中每一个派生意义直接地与主要的意义相关，连锁型描述的是这样一种发展过程，其中每一个后来的意义仅与前一种意义相关联，就如同链条一样。,Radiation and Concatenation are closely related being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.辐射型和连锁型有着密切的联系，他们分别是词义像多义发展的不同阶段。Generally,radiation precedes
11、 concatenation.In many cases,the two processes work together,complementing each other.一般来说，辐射型在连锁型之前。在许多情况下，这两大类互相影响，互相补充。,6.2 Homonymy 同形同音异义关系,Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.同形同音异义词
12、一般定义为在读音和拼写上或者只是在读音或拼写上相同而词义不同的词。Based on the degree of similarity,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms,homographs and homophones.根据相似的程度，同形同音异义词又可分为 3 类：完全同形同音异义词、同形异音异义词和同音异形异义词。,Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning.完全同形同音异义词是拼写和读音相同
13、但词义不同的词。Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning同形异音异义词是拼写相同但读音和词义不同，Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Of the three types,homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.同音异形异义词是读音相同但拼写和词义不同的词。,6.
14、2.2 Origins of Homonyms同形同音异义词的起源,There are various sources of homonyms:change in sound and spelling,borrowing,etc.同形同音异义词的起源有多种：读音的变化、拼写的变化、借词等。1）Change in sound and spelling.Some homonyms are native by origin,derived from different earlier forms in Old English.The change in sound and spelling grad
15、ually made them identical in modern English.语音和拼音的变化。有些同形同音异义词来源于本族语词，派生自古代英语中的不同早期的形式。语音和拼写方面的变化使得它们在现在英语中逐渐变得相同起来。,2）Borrowing.As a result of heavy borrowing from other languages,many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin or with those of other forei
16、gn origin.借用。由于从其他语言中大量借用，很多源自外语中的词的语音和/或拼音与源自本族语的词，或与源自其他外语中的词趋于一致。3）Shortening.Many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with other words in spelling or sound.缩略法。很多缩略词的形式正好与其他词的拼写或语音雷同。,6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants 同形同音异义词和多义词的区别,The fundamental difference between
17、 homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.同形同音异义词与多义词的基本区别在于：前者指在形式上偶尔相同但并不是一个词的词，而后者有几个区 别义项的同一个词。,6.2.3Differetiation of Homonyms from p
18、olysemants同形同音异义词核多义词的区别,One important criterion is to see their etymology.homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.一个重要的标准是看它们的词源。而多义词是一个来源，只是在词义 发展过程中产生了不同的意义。The second principal considerati
19、on is semantic relatedness.The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree;On the other hand,meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.第二个重要标准是语义是否相关。多义词的词义与原始意义多少都有关联，而同形同音异义的词义是互不相关的。In dictionaries,a p
20、olysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.在字典中多义词列在一个词条之下，而同形同音异义词则列入不同的词条。,6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms同形同音异义词的修辞特点,As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling,particularly homophones,they are often employed to create puns for
21、 desired effect of,say,humor,sarcasm or ridicule.因为同形同音异义词在读音或者拼写上是相同的（同音异形异义词尤其如此），所以人们常用这类词以产生双关的修辞效果，起到幽默、讽刺等作用。,6.3 Synonymy同义关系,Synonymy is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.同义关系是自然语言词汇的一个重要特点。English as a highly developed language is known for its copiou
22、s stock of synonyms.英语是一门高度发达的语言，同义词数量很多。,6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义,Synonyms can be defined as word different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。Synonyms might be defined as one of two or more words in the English lang
23、uage which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning（WNDS）.同义词也可以定义为英语语言中两个或两个以上具有相同或几乎相同的基本意义的词。In other words,synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as in part of speech.换句话说，同义词在外延和词类上具有相似性。A verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym,neither can adverb take a noun as its
24、 synonym.一个动词不能把一个形容词当做同义词，一个副词也不能把一个名词当作同义词。,6.3.2 Types of Synonym同义词的分类,Synonyms can be classified into two major groups:absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.同义词可分为两大类：绝对同义词和相对同义词。Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Both
25、 in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning,including conceptual and associative meanings.绝对同义词也称为完全同义词，意义完全相同的词，也就是说，语法意义、词汇意义（包括概念意义和关联意义）都完全相同。It is observed that absolute synonyms are rare in natural languages and some people even hold that such synonyms are non-existent.Absolute synonyms are re
26、stricted to highly specialized vocabulary.有人注意到，绝对同义词在语言中是极少的，有人甚至以为绝对同义词是不存在的。在一些极为专业的术语中有一些绝对同义词。,Relative synonyms also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.相对同义词也叫近义词，是在外延上相近或几乎相同但意义有细微区别
27、或有程度上区别的词。,6.3.3 Sources of Synonym同义词的来源,Sources of Synonyms:同义词的来源：1）Borrowing.Modern English is extremely rich in synonyms,which come from different sources.1）借词。现代英语丰富的同义词有许多不同的来源。2）Dialects and regional English,方言和区域词 3）Figurative and euphemistic use of words,比喻词和委婉语 4)Coincidence with idiomati
28、c expressions 与习语的巧合,6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别,The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas:denotation,connotation,and application.同义词的区别主要归结为 3 个方面：外延、内涵和应用。1）Difference in denotation.Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Some words have a wider range
29、of meaning than others.外延上的区别。同义词在意义的范围和强弱程度有区别。有的词的意义范围大于其同义词。2）Difference in connotation.By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.内涵上的区别。这里的内涵意思是说词的文体意义和感情色彩。有些同义词在外延上相同，但在文体上不太相同。3)Differ
30、ence in application.Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.应用上的差异：许多同义词的用法不相同。它们用于不同搭配或不同句型中,6.4 Antonymy 反义关系,6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类型Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.A
31、ntonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.反义词讨论词义相反的现象。反义词可定义为意义相反的词。1)Contradictory terms.矛盾反义词 These Antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.The assertion of one is
32、 the denial of the other.In other words,if one of the pair is true,then the other cannot be.这类反义词是真正意义上的反义词。语义之间互不包容，肯定一方就是否定另一方，没有其他可能性。换句话说，如果一对反义词中的一个是真，另一个就不能是真。,2)Contrary terms.对立反义词。Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.The two opposit
33、es are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.这类反义词可视为在两极之间的尺度上相互关系的词。这两极可划分等级，一极相对于另一极而存在。3)Relative terms.关系反义词 This third type consists of relational opposites.The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the ot
34、her.第三类反义词是表示相互关系的。这组词表示相互社会关系，一个词不能脱离另一个词的依托而存在。This type also includes reverse terms,which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality,or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse the quality,action or state of the other。这类反义词还包括相反的术语，由表示特性的形容词和副词以及表示性质、动作或状态的动词和名词构成。,6.4.2
35、Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词特点,1)Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.一些反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。2)A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.具有多个意义的词可以有多个反义词。3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.反义词在语义包容上存在差异。4)Contrary terms are gradable
36、 antonyms,differing in degree of intensity,so each has its own corresponding opposite.对立反义词是等级反义词，依据强度程度而变化，所以每一个词有其自身相对应的反义词。Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time,one being the negative and the other opposite.有些词可能有两种不同类型的反义词，一个是否定的，而另一个是对立的。,6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms
37、 反义词的使用,Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words.反义词具有多种不同的实际用途，而且在定义词的意义时早已被证明是很有用、很有价值的。Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought,often for the sake of contrast.Many idioms
38、 are formed with antonyms.They look neat and pleasant,and sound rhythmic.反义词在帮助我们简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面中十分有用，这经常是因为对比的需要。很多成语是由反义词形成的。这些词看上去十分整齐、赏心悦目，且听起来韵律均匀。Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together.为了强调，反义词常通过将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶。,6.4.2 Hyponymy上下义关
39、系,Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.These specific words are known as hyponyms(subordinate).The general words are Superordinate.也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义 之中。这些具
40、体的词被称为下义词。一般的词称为上义词，鳎目鱼,Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs,with higher-order superordiates above the lower subordinates.But their status either as super-ordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms.上下义关系能根据树形图来进行描述，其中高层次的上义词位于低层次的下义词之上。但它们作为上义或下义的地位是与其他词相对而言的。Knowing the se
41、mantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness,exactness,and concreteness.了解下义词及其上义词的语义特征能帮助我们获得生动，精确，详尽的效果。,6.6 Semantic Field 语义场,The massive word store of a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas,some large,such as philosophy or emotions,others smaller,such as kinship or colour.Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.像英语这样巨大的词库可以想象为是由许多意义域所组成的。如 哲学或情感，其他的可能小，如亲缘或色彩。以这种方式来看待语义是场理论的基础。,
