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1、1,Chapter 2Managing Across Cultures,Chapter 2(1)_ Global Culture2Chapter 2(2)_ Multicultural Teams11Chapter 2(3)_ Motivation in a Global Context36Chapter 2(4)_ Decision Making51Chapter 2(5)_ Leadership68Chapter 2(6)_ Global HRM92,2,Chapter 2(1)_Global Culture,3,CULTURAL MESSAGES COME FROM MULTIPLE S
2、OURCES,DomesticInternationalGlobalalthough most common challenges are addressed by nations,a global civil society is emerging,4,PEOPLE LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE ENTITIES FOR CULTURAL DIRECTION,Affiliative groups e.g.,ethnic groupsNongovernmental organizations,e.g.,the Womens League for Peace and FreedomRe
3、ligious groupsRegional associations,e.g.,Economic UnionBusiness organizations,5,Multiple messages and sources create CONFUSION AND UNCERTAINTY,Leading to new questions national cultures are less well able to answerbutIn a global society,we dont have a sense of the appropriate rules by which all can
4、live,6,TRANSITION TIME?,Are we at a point where nationality is less important to culture than in the past?,All of Us,7,WE SEE THAT SOME VALUES ARE COVERGING,OTHERS ARE NOT,The Planet ProjectThe Roper Poll of ValuesThe World Values SurveyThe GLOBE Project,8,GLOBE RESPONSES ON GENDER EGALITARIANISM SH
5、OWS COVERGENCE ON“SHOULD BE”,9,GLOBE RESPONSES ON HUMANEORIENTATION ALSO SHOWS COVERGENCE ON“SHOULD BE”,10,QUESTIONS OF GLOBAL AND LOCAL CULTURES,Will global culture replace or exist with local cultures?Will global culture bring positive or negative outcomes?,11,Chapter 2(2)-Multicultural Teams,12,T
6、wo or more interacting individuals who come together to achieve some objectives.Groups can be either formal or informal,and further subclassified into command,task,interest,or friendship categories.,Group,13,A specific type of group where an emphasis is put on some level of member interdependence an
7、d on achievement of common goals,Team,All teams are groups Some groups are just people assembled togetherTeams have task interdependence whereas some groups do not(e.g.,group of employees enjoying lunch together),14,Reasons for Team Popularity,Outperform individuals on tasks requiring multiple skill
8、s,judgment,and experienceBetter utilization of employee talentsMore flexible and responsive to changing eventsFacilitate employee participation in operating decisionsEffective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee involvement and motivation,15,16,Cohesiveness,Social-Oriented Cohe
9、siveness:The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the groupTask-Oriented Cohesiveness:The degree to which group members work together,cooperate and coordinate their activity in order to achieve group goals,17,Team Effectiveness Model,18,Groups Acr
10、oss Cultures,Two cultural dimensions are especially relevant:Individualism-CollectivismPower DistanceAlso Uncertainty Avoidance;e.g.,potential for Role Conflict(esp.in multi-functional teams),19,The Challenge in Shaping Team Players,Greatest where.The national culture is highly individualisticIntrod
11、uced into organizations that historically value individual achievement,Less demanding.Where employees have strong collectivist values,such as Japan or MexicoIn new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuring work,20,Cross-Cultural Differences,Crosscultural differences in inter
12、group processesCollectivistic culturesExpect little expression of conflict;favor suppressing conflictPrefer to personalize interaction;focus on people,despite what group they representGroup membership is an important part of identity and interaction,21,Power Distance and SDWTs,Nicholls et al.(1999)s
13、tudy of SDWT in Mexico:Why are teams failing in a highly collectivist culture such as Mexico?Major challenges in implementing SDWTsWorkers expect to exercise little control over work and not to be involved in decision makingExpect clear instructions from the top and are not highly motivated by oppor
14、tunity to initiate and take larger responsibilityCan SDWT work in high-PD cultures?How?,22,Interpersonal Relationships,Individualists tend to have more friends,but with lesser intensity level;Collectivists tend to have less friends,but with higher intensity level.Individualists are less suspicious t
15、owards out-group members and easier to make initial contact;Collectivists have stronger bonds with in-group members,23,Differential Group Processes,Conformity:who is more conforming?Formal/regulated participation vs.spontaneousSocial loafing versus social strivingPreferences for group vs.individual
16、rewardsEquality(you deserve what you get)vs.Equity(you get what you deserve)vs.Need based decisions(to all according to their needs),24,Conformity,Crosscultural variations in tendency to accept group pressure for conformity to group normsJapanese encourage high conformity to norms of a group that ha
17、s the persons primary loyaltyGerman students(in some experimental research)showed a lower tendency to conformModerate conformity among people in Hong Kong,Brazil,Lebanon,and the United States,25,Teams Cultural Composition,Cultural Diversity:the number of different cultures represented in the group;C
18、ultural Norms:the orientations of the specific cultures represented in the group toward group dynamics and processes;andRelative Cultural Distance:the extent to which group members are culturally different from each other,26,Surface and Deep Diversity,In multicultural teams,diversity can be in the f
19、orm of:Surface-level(black-American;Caucasian-American;French and Vietnamese)and/orDeep-level(Irish and English;Singaporean and Chinese;N.and S.Africans),27,Dynamics of Team Diversity,DiversitySurfaceDeep,Affective ReactionsCohesionSatisfactionCommitment,Team BehavioursCommunicationConflictCooperati
20、on,Long-termConseq.PerformancePromotionTurnover,GroupDynamics,Social Context,Org.Context,28,Jackson,Joshi&Erhardt(2003),Surface-level diversity has more immediate impact and is influential in early-stage/newly formed teams while deep-level becomes more important over time and its effects last longer
21、.Diversity,in general,and cultural/ethnic diversity in particular,have mixed effects on team processes and performance;Less effect on simpler,motor-based tasks;more effect on complex,interdependent teamwork,29,Earley&Mosakowski(2000),Studied effects of heterogeneity in transnational teams using expe
22、rimental and field settingsReasoned that the effects of national heterogeneity on team performance is non-linear;Found that in the early stages,homogenous teams(those with only one major national group identity)outperformed both moderately heterogeneous(groups with two different sub-group identities
23、)and highly heterogeneous(no clear sub-group identities exist)teams.,30,Earley&Mosakowski(2000),In the longer term,high-heterogeneous teams performance increased as they managed to create a hybrid-culture;Such hybrid culture was not created in moderately heterogeneous teams,whose performance was low
24、er than both high and low heterogeneity teams.Team processes mediated the effects of heterogeneity on team performance,such that:In homogenous groups,members perceived many similarities between themselves(remember SIT?);trust,shared mental models and open communication developed early on in the team
25、s life,31,Earley&Mosakowski(2000),In moderately heterogeneous teams,a dynamic of us vs.them prevailed,with the two sub-groups sticking to themselves in times of conflict,resulting in little cross sub-group cooperation;In highly heterogeneous teams,as time passed,members go to know each other better
26、and since there were no dominant sub-groups,they were free to form a hybrid culture-unique to their team and overarching each members national identity.Implications for joint ventures and projects where two cultures(national or organizational)get together to try to create a cooperative structure,32,
27、Diversity and Teams,Overall,diversity causes process lossesCan be beneficial if team overcomes these losses over timeDepends on organizational culture and top-management supportHighly heterogeneous and highly homogenous teams work better than mid-range onesFault lines in teams lead to rivalry coalit
28、ions=decrease effectiveness,33,Conditions for Effectiveness,34,Some Implications,Investment in diverse teams is more sensible for the longer-term,for complex tasks and when team members are(relatively)pluralisticMore careful task design is neededPositive feedback,early onPreparation and training,thr
29、ough conceptual and experiential approaches is recommendedStrive to create a third culture through superordinate goals and neutralization of differences,35,Diversity:Beyond the Obvious,Seemingly culturally similar team members may have the hardest time to get along:need to take into account other va
30、riables besides culture(history,class)Idiosyncratic cultural variables,e.g.,intellectual style(Russians vs.N.Americans)Prior experience with different cultures plays important role(usually for the better)Virtual Teams:added complexity,36,Chapter 2(3)-Motivation in a Global Context,37,The Basic Motiv
31、ation Process,Introduction to Motivation,MotivationPsychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives,38,Introduction to Motivation,Need TheoriesCognitive theoriesExpectancy theory:describes internal processes of choice among different
32、 behaviorsEquity theory:describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated Goal setting theory:focuses on how to set goals for people to reachBehavioral theoryBehavior modification:focuses on observable behavior,not internal psychological processes,39,Basic Assumptions,The Universali
33、st AssumptionAll people are motivated to pursue goals they valueSpecific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by cultureMovement toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries,40,41,Attitudes and Personality,Personality characteristicsPeople in in
34、dividualistic cultures(United States)have stronger need for autonomy than people in grouporiented cultures(Japan)People in cultures that emphasize avoiding uncertainty(Belgium,Peru)have stronger need for security than people in cultures that are less concerned about avoiding uncertainty(Singapore,Ir
35、eland),42,Need Theories of Motivation,Concept of needs holds across culturesPeople from different cultures may express and satisfy needs differentlyImportance of needs in Maslows need hierarchyUnited States:selfactualizationLatin America:security,affiliationFrance and Germany:need for securityNew Ze
36、aland:belongingness and loveMcClelland:needs for affiliation,power and achievement,43,International Aspects ofJob Design,Herzberg:Two Factor TheoryIndividual and groupbased job designU.S.managers have mostly used individual approaches to job designRecent shifts to groupbased approachesManagers in ot
37、her industrialized countries have mainly emphasized groupbased job design,44,Job Design(Cont.),Changing specific job characteristicsBelgium,Mexico,Greece,Thailand:not likely to accept efforts to increase autonomy and task identityFrench managers particularly dislike recommendations to decentralize d
38、ecision authority.Subordinates do not expect them to do soQuality circles:big success in Japan,but only partial in the US,45,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation,Two assumptions that could restrict use of these theories outside the U.S.Individual controls decisions about future actionsMan
39、ager can deliberately shape the behavior of people,46,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation,Both assumptions reflect U.S.values of free will,individualism,individual controlCultural contrastsMuslim managers believe something happens mainly because God wills it to happenHong Kong Chinese be
40、lieve luck plays a role in all events,47,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories,Expectancy theorys validity in other culturesJapanese female life insurance sales representatives responded to commission system as expectedRussian textile workersLinked valued extrinsic rewards to worker performanceProductiv
41、ity increased as the theory predictsGenerally,expectancy theory best explains motivation of people in cultures that emphasize internal attribution,48,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories(Cont.),Equity theory:complex crosscultural effectsReward allocation decisions followed equity theory premises in U.S
42、.,Russian,and Chinese samplesOther studiesChinese emphasized seniority in their reward decisions more than Americans.Eastern European transition economies:endorsed positive inequity more than American students,49,Culture&Motivation,Research on goal setting theory in several countriesResults consiste
43、nt with U.S.work that formulated the theorySome cultural differencesU.S.students not affected by how goals were setIsraeli students performed better when goals were set participatively;consistent with culture of cooperation,50,Idiosyncratic Factors,Beyond cultures variance along the major cultural v
44、alue dimensions,there are specific aspects anchored in nations history and expressed through its symbols and language.,Ignoring such factors may render motivational techniques ineffective or even result in de-motivation;e.g.:Slay the Dragon!,51,Chap 2(4)-Decision Making across Cultures,52,Decision M
45、aking,Process of choosing a course of action among alternatives,53,Various Factors,*Time OrientationDeciding for the short/long term?How long to make a decision?Polichronic or monochronic style?*Who decides:Groups vs.Individuals*Voting vs.Consensus based decisions*Process:Participative vs.Autocratic
46、,54,Value of Rationality,Strong preference for rational D.M.vs.Occasional or low value on rationality;In some cultures more emphasis on:EmotionsReligionIdeology,55,Rational Decision Making,The Rational Approach assumes thatManagers follow a systematic,step-by-step process.Organization is economicall
47、y based and is managed by decision makers who are entirely objective and have complete information.It assumes that rational choices are:ConsistentValue-maximizingWithin specified constraints,56,The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model,1.Define the problem2.Identify decision criteria3.Weight the c
48、riteria4.Generate alternatives5.Rate each alternative on each criterion6.Compute the optimal decision,57,Cultural Contingencies in Decision Making,58,Case Study:The Road to Hell(p.512),What mistakes did John Baker Made?Why did he not realize his mistake when it occurred?What would you recommend that
49、 Baker do now?What do you learn from this case about human resource management across different nations?,59,Stages of Moral Development,Level,Stage Description,Principled,Conventional,Pre-conventional,Adapted from L.Kohlberg,“Moral Stages and Moralization:The Cognitive-Developmental approach,”pages
50、34-55 inMoral Develop and Behavior:Theory,Research,and Social Issues,ed.T.Lickona(New York:Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1976).,60,Three Different Criteria in Making Ethical Choices,Utilitarian Criterion-made solely on basis of outcomes or consequencesFocus on Rights-made consistently with fundamental liber
