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1、U7_main,Get Started,Text Study,Supplementary Resources,Unit 7,Culture During the Enlightenment,Get Started_ main,Get Started,Get Started,1.A General Introduction,2.Focus In,Get Started_1.1,Get Started,Get Started_1.2,Get Started,The Enlightenment,a period in European history,occurred during the 18th
2、 century.This period is also known as the Age of Reason.The Enlightenment was a time of awakening of political,social,and economic thought.The ideas of the Enlightenment originated in France and eventually spread throughout much of Europe and into the North American colonies of Britain.These ideas h
3、elped lay the philosophical foundations for the American and French revolutions.The Enlightenment developed out of the works of 17th-century thinkers such as Isaac Newton,Ren Descartes,and John Locke.A belief in the supremacy of reason was the chief,Get Started_1.3,Get Started,characteristic of the
4、Enlightenment.Thinkers of the Enlightenment believed that through the use of reason,people could learn humanitys true nature and use this knowledge to establish a perfect society.Another hallmark of the Enlightenment was an enduring belief in the scientific method,rationalism,and the existence of un
5、changeable natural laws.Many of the writings of the Enlightenment challenged the accepted political ideas and religious beliefs of the time,including the concept that monarchs receive their right to rule directly from God.,Get Started_1.4,Get Started,The foremost figures in the Enlightenment were a
6、group of French thinkers known as philosophers.The preeminent member of this group was the writer,historian,and poet Voltaire.He emerged as the Enlightenments chief critic of contemporary culture and religion.Another important member of this group was Jean Jacques Rousseau,whose writings greatly inf
7、luenced the political thinking of the time.Also influential were the writings of Charles,Baron de Montesquieu,who challenged the idea of rule by a monarch and championed individual freedom.The philosopher Denis Diderot,in collaboration with Jean DAlembert,planned and edited a multivolume encyclopedi
8、a designed to include all realms of knowledge.Many of the entries were written by other philosophies.,Get Started_1.5,Get Started,It was under such political,economic and intellectual circumstances that the Enlightenment began to be seen in France as an unprecedentedly intellectual and cultural move
9、ment.Its influence was to be perceived later in the French Revolution,the American War of Independence,and even in Chinas May 4th Movement of New Culture in the early years of the 20th century.,Get Started_2.1,Get Started,To get a brief view of the social and theological background of the Enlightenm
10、entTo get to know major representative figures of the Enlightenment and their ideasTo understand the features of the Enlightenment and its significance,Text Study _main,Text Study,Text Study,I.Background,II.Empiricist Influences from Britain,III.Representative Figures of the Enlightenment and Their
11、Ideas,IV.Literature during the Enlightenment,V.A Reflection on the Enlightenment and Its Significance,The Enlightenment is generally agreed to have originated in France.It was due to the fact that France met with a period of decline after its national prosperity during the reign of Louis XIV,which w
12、as demonstrated by the sharpening class clashes and social crises resulting from the deteriorating political and economic conditions.Internationally,France also suffered a series of setbacks in its competition with other European powers,such as Britain when the latter was marching steadily on its wa
13、y towards a dominating position following the Glorious Revolution in 1688.The situation was worsened by Frances fiscal deficits and economic difficulties,caused by heavy,Text Study _I_1.1,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _I_1.2,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,heavy taxation and frequent
14、famines,which made peasants and poor citizens rise up in revolt against the royal government.During Louis XVs reign,France witnessed violent resistance by the poor to cruel exploitation and oppression and successive defeats in the wars with Austria,Russia and Prussia in the middle of the 18th centur
15、y.These wars cost France the loss of most of her colonies in Asia and North America.In addition there was her failure at sea resulting to the British domination and loss of her traditional naval advantage.,Text Study _I_1.3,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,In this critical situation,there was no oth
16、er choice but a political reform.As the whole situation worsened,the majority of the French population,peasants and the impoverished city dwellers in particular,suffered bitterly from the economic deterioration,political instability,social chaos and cultural retrogression and hence responded unhesit
17、atingly to the bourgeoisie who strongly demanded that the decline be curbed and reforms be carried out.Under such circumstances,some progressive intellectuals began to think seriously and tried to find a way out through social and political reformation.,Meanwhile,the dissemination of scientific know
18、ledge was under way with the development of capitalist production,whose influence began to motivate and evoke a breath of enlightenment and theoretical guidance across the European continent,including the British empiricism,which was picked up by Voltaire and his contemporaries and helped to ease th
19、e French intellectual tension.Since the Renaissance the intellectual climate in France had greatly improved.Many of the people were better educated and more knowledgeable about science.They had had,Text Study _I_1.4,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _I_1.5,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,
20、become more aware of the practical significance of science and technology,and this altered their traditional views of daily life as well as their cultural and social affairs.The results of the scientific research of Copernicus,Galileo and Newton were passed on quickly through access to books,newspap
21、ers and journals resulting from the invention of printing.This greatly informed and affected the public whose cultural taste and political viewpoints were thus modified to the new intellectual climate.Gradually they gave up their religious and metaphysical modes of reasoning and adopted a new outloo
22、k with a more progressive and scientific basis.,Text Study _I_2.1,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Prussia 普鲁士：A German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg.Prussia shaped the history of Germ
23、any,with its capital in Berlin after 1451.After 1871,Prussia was increasingly merged into Germany,losing its distinctive identity.It was effectively abolished in 1932,and officially abolished in 1947.Prussia achieved its greatest importance in the 18th and 19th centuries.During the 18th century,it b
24、ecame a great European power under the reign of Frederick the Great(17401786).During the 19th century,Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a“Lesser Germany”which would exclude the Austrian Empire.,Text Study _I_2.2,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretat
25、ion of Cultural Terms,Text Study _I_2.3,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,The British Glorious Revolution 光荣革命:Also called the Revolution of 1688 or the Bloodless Revolution,it was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentar
26、ians with an invading army led by William of Orange from Holland who subsequently ascended the English throne together with his wife Mary II,as the joint ruler of England.It can be argued that Jamess overthrow initiated modern English parliamentary democracy:never again would the monarch hold absolu
27、te power,and the Bill of Rights became one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain.,Text Study _I_2.4,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Britain.The deposition of the Roman Catholic James II ended any chance of Catholicism becomin
28、g re-established in England,and also led to limited toleration for nonconformist Protestants,thus ensuring the Protestant succession.,Text Study _I_2.5,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Empiricism 经验主义:The use of experience or experiments as the basis for y
29、our ideas or the belief in these methods.In philosophy,empiricism is a theory of knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from experience.Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,especially sensory perception,in the formation of ideas,while discounting the notion of innate idea
30、s.In the philosophy of science,empiricism emphasizes those aspects of scientific knowledge that are closely related to evidence,especially as discovered in experiments.,Text Study _I_2.5,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,experiments.It is a fundamental part
31、 of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world,rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning,intuition,or revelation.Hence,science is considered to be methodologically empirical in nature.,The Enlightenment first started in.In t
32、he 17th century,France became more powerful in economic and military achievements due to the measures and reforms taken by.In century,France lost its initial domination at the sea to England.The Enlightenment was influenced by British and dissemination of.With the worsening situation of France in 18
33、th century,more and more people,led by newly emerging strongly demanded for political reforms.,Text Study _I_3.1,Text Study,Comprehension Exercises,Fill in the blanks.,(1)(2)(3)(4)(5),Comprehension Exercises,France,_,Louis XIV,_,18th,_,empiricism,_,scientific knowledge,_,Bourgeoisie,_,Text Study _I_
34、4.1,Text Study,Think and Discuss,Please give an account of the setting of the Enlightenment.,The fact that the Enlightenment first occurred in France was ascribed to the deterioration in economic,political,social and cultural conditions in the 18th-century France.The French people strongly demanded
35、that the declining situation be arrested and reforms be carried out.Under such circumstances,progressive intellectuals began to think more seriously about the solutions to the crises and tried to resort to intellectual and,Think and Discuss,Text Study _I_4.2,Text Study,Think and Discuss,Think and Di
36、scuss,and social means.This movement also asked for more political power to the people as the bourgeoisie joined in with its economic support and thus the cultural movement tinned with political colour as a bourgeois mark.On the other hand,the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the influences
37、 of British empiricism also immensely heightened intellectual and political awareness of the people in general.This prepared the political basis of the bourgeois revolution to follow.,Text Study _I_1.1_pop,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _I_1.2_pop,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text S
38、tudy _II_1.1,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _II_1.2,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _II_1.3,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _II_1.4,Text Study,Main Ideas,Main Ideas,Text Study _II_2.1,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Thomas Hobbes 托马斯霍布斯(15881679):Brit
39、ish philosopher whose famous book Leviathan(利维坦)in 1651 established the foundation for most of the Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.2,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibni
40、z 莱布尼兹(16461716):German mathematician and philosopher.In philosophy,he is mostly remembered for optimism,i.e.his conclusion that our universe is,in a restricted sense,the best possible one God could have made.He was,along with Ren Descartes and Baruch Spinoza,one of the three greatest 17th-century r
41、ationalists,but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition and anticipates modern logic and analysis.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.3,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Ren Descartes 笛卡尔(15961650):A highly influential French philosopher,mathematician,scie
42、ntist,and writer.Descartes was a major figure in 17th-century continental rationalism,later advocated by Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz,and opposed by the empiricist school of thought consisting of Hobbes,Locke,Berkeley,and Hume.Leibniz,Spinoza and Descartes were all well versed in mathematics
43、 as well as philosophy,and Descartes and Leibniz contributed greatly to science as well.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.4,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Immanuel Kant 康德(17241804):An 18th-century German philosopher.He is regarded as on
44、e of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment.,Text Study _II_2.5,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Phenomenalism 现象学:The view that physical objects do not exist as things in themselves but only as perceptual phenomena or sensory stimuli(e.g.redness,hard
45、ness,softness,sweetness,etc.)situated in time and in space.In particular,phenomenalism reduces talk about physical objects in the external world to talk about bundles of sense-data.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.6,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Auguste Comte 孔德(17981
46、857):A French thinker,widely regarded as the first sociologist.He developed a(secular religion)social theory known as positivism,which emphasizes reason and logic.Comte also founded the social sciences.He and other early social scientists assume that human behavior must obey laws just as strictly as
47、 material objects obey Newtons Laws of Motion,and that if we could discover the laws of human behaviours,we could eliminate moral evils.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.7,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Positivism 实证主义:The philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is
48、 one based on actual sense experience.Such knowledge can only come from the affirmation of theories through strict scientific method to suggest that metaphysical speculation should be avoided.It was developed by Auguste Comte in the middle of the 19th century.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text S
49、tudy _II_2.8,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Jeremy Bentham 杰里米边沁(17481832):An English jurist,philosopher,and legal and social reformer.He held some radical political ideas as a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law.He was best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism,his
50、concept of animal rights,and his opposition to the idea of natural rights.,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,Text Study _II_2.9,Text Study,Interpretation of Cultural Terms,John Stuart Mill 约翰穆勒(18061875):British philosopher,political economist,civil servant and Member of Parliament,an influential lib
