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1、7/20/2023,1,環境的道德觀,張保興 副教授淡江大學水資源暨環境工程學系,7/20/2023,2,1999年9月21日凌晨1時47分，集集車站內的大鐘走到這個時間，就停住了。,http:/,7/20/2023,3,在921大地震中許多大樓應聲倒下，而未倒的危樓更超出百棟以上。在這些倒塌的斷垣殘壁中，赫然發現沙拉油桶及報紙充斥在樑柱之間，頓時使隱藏幾十年的建築偷工減料問題浮出檯面。,7/20/2023,4,公共建築損毀比率較民間建築高，可能因低價得標制度或監督欠嚴謹或其他原因導致品質粗糙等因素所造成。,7/20/2023,5,921大地震後教育部有如下之來函,7/20/2023,6,教育
2、部 書函,主旨：為提昇我國大學校院土木、建築、水利、環境工程相關系所學生之工作倫理與職業道德，建議各校開設相關課程內容上充實相關知能，請 查照。發文日期：1/24/00發文字號：台(89)高(4)字第89010416號,7/20/2023,7,為何討論環境的道德觀？,其邏輯為：人類的價值觀塑造人類的未來，而道德感又是人類價值觀的一重要部份，故道德感之強與弱將會影響到人類之未來。故本人將針對萬物之未來，進行探討道德心之重要。,7/20/2023,8,DesJardins,JosephR.,Environmental ethics:an introduction to environmental
3、philosophy,Wadsworth,1993.,7/20/2023,9,Outline,IntroductionTraditional ethical assumptionsEnvironmental ethicsThe utilitarians viewDifficulties and challenges against utilitarianEthical issues in economic analysis of environmental problemsDoes economic analysis distort or ignore environmental issues
4、?Some background:want and preference,willingness to pay,allocative efficiency,belief and value.Sagoffs three challenges against economic methods,7/20/2023,10,Introduction,Human desires:Trouble,environmentally:It may cause species extinction and many other problems.中藥-如虎骨、犀牛角等（滋陰補陽、以毒攻毒）吃稀有動物（吃什麼補什麼的
5、觀念）-如熊膽(bear bile)、熊掌、虎骨、虎鞭、燕窩等吃孕婦流產或墮胎的胚胎，據說是大大補用象牙、珊瑚等物品穿獸皮衣,7/20/2023,11,The hope,Science and technology do solve many problems for us.Nuclear fusion,genetic technology,.No desires no market demands no ecological destructions,7/20/2023,12,Introduction-three myths(錯誤的觀念)The first myth,The hope tha
6、t science and technology solve everything for us.Science and technology,in some cases,solve problems locally,but cause harmful effect globally in the long term,e.g.,green house effect(CO2),ozone depletion(CFC),DDT,detergent(ABS).,7/20/2023,13,Introduction-three mythsThe second myth,The experts opini
7、on-people believe the experts in science and technology know best and trust them.Evidence shows that expert usually has a tendency of overconfidence.Experts personal value may be narrow,improper or even biased.,7/20/2023,14,Introduction-three mythsThe third myth,The scientific objectivity-we should
8、not do anything unless our beliefs are validated by science.Science is not the purely objective and value-neutral resource.Science does make mistakes.Many environmental issues are not very clear to scientists,but potential consequences may be severe and costly,e.g.,ecological responses to human acti
9、vities.In many cases,demanding scientific evidence is time consuming and may be too late.,7/20/2023,15,Introduction,Environmental issues raise fundamental questions about how we should live.Such questions are philosophical and ethical,not scientific and technological,questions.Environmental policy o
10、ught to be decided in the political arena and not in scientific laboratories,corporate boardrooms,or government bureaucracies.,7/20/2023,16,Traditional ethical assumptions(1),The inert nature assumption:Nature has no interest and that nothing counts as“good”for nature.Without interest,there is no ro
11、le for a right.The anthropocentric(以人為主的)assumption:A bad case of“speciesism”(Singer,1975).,7/20/2023,17,Traditional ethical assumptions(2),The current generation assumption:“First come,first served.”“Devil takes the hindmost.”“What have future persons ever done for me.”,7/20/2023,18,Traditional eth
12、ical assumptions(3),Consequences:Resources depletion,environmental pollution,ecological destruction,.Chechile,R.A.,Carlisle,Susan,Environmental Decision Making:A Multidisciplinary Perspective,Von Nostrand Reinhold,New York,1991.,7/20/2023,19,Environmental Ethics(1),Environmental ethics presents and
13、defends a systematic and comprehensive account of the moral relations between human beings and their natural environment.Environmental ethics assumes that human behavior toward the natural world can be and is governed by moral norms.,7/20/2023,20,Environmental Ethics(2),Environmental ethics mustexpl
14、ain what these norms areexplain to whom or to what humans have responsibilitiesshow how these responsibilities are justified,7/20/2023,21,Environmental Ethics(3),Some authors speak of different levels of environmental consciousness which suggests that people will understand the world in different wa
15、ys depending on their ethical and environmental sensitivity.,7/20/2023,22,7/20/2023,23,金玉良言,Relations with others are not purely external to the self.My commitment to my friends or my children,to a person whom I love or a social movement in which I believe,may be a part of my own deepest being,so th
16、at when I devote myself to them,my overriding experience is not of sacrificing myself but of fulfilling myself.-The moral philosophers,Norman R.,Oxford:Clarendon press 1983.力行環保與簡樸生活，如乘捷運、不吃稀有動植物等，算是犧牲嗎？不是，是成就自我。,being:PERSONALITY,the quality or state of being a person.人品,fulfill:1.to develop the fu
17、ll potentialities of開發潛能 2.to meet the requirements of 達到(自我)要求,7/20/2023,24,The earth was not given to us by our parents,it was loaned to us by our children.,-Kenyan proverb,7/20/2023,25,The utilitarian view,7/20/2023,26,Main Entry:ethicalPronunciation:e-thi-k&lVariant(s):also ethic/-thik/Function:
18、adjectiveEtymology:Middle English etik,from Latin ethicus,from Greek Ethikos,from Ethos character-more at SIBDate:16071:of or relating to ethics2:involving or expressing moral approval or disapproval3:conforming to accepted professional standards of conduct4 of a drug:restricted to sale only on a do
19、ctors prescriptionsynonym see MORAL-ethicality/e-th&-ka-l&-tE/noun-ethically/e-thi-k(&-)lE/adverb-ethicalness/-k&l-n&s/noun,7/20/2023,27,Two elements of utilitarian theory,The subject:goodThe rule for judging what is an ethical act(or alternative):the act should maximize the good consequences.,7/20/
20、2023,28,Main Entry:hedonismPronunciation:hi:-d akin to Greek hEdys sweet-more at SWEETDate:18561:the doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the sole or chief good in life2:a way of life based on or suggesting the principles of hedonism,7/20/2023,29,Hedonism,Philosophers commonly distinguish between
21、psychological hedonism and ethical hedonism.Psychological hedonism is the view that humans are psychologically constructed in such a way that we exclusively desire pleasure.Ethical hedonism is the view that our fundamental moral obligation is to maximize pleasure or happiness.,7/20/2023,30,What is g
22、ood?-two interpretations,Hedonistic utilitarianism takes pleasure,or at least the absence of pain,to be the only good valued for its own sake.Preference utilitarianism understands the good as the happiness that results from the satisfaction of desires.,7/20/2023,31,Two properties of the good,Good sh
23、ould be objective:That means good should be independent of specific contexts.Good should be universal:That means good for all people at all times.,7/20/2023,32,Good has value to us.,What is value?,7/20/2023,33,Main Entry:intrinsicPronunciation:in-trin-zik,-trin(t)-sikFunction:adjectiveEtymology:Midd
24、le French intrinsque internal,from Late Latin intrinsecus,fromLatin,adverb,inwardly;akin to Latin intra within-more at INTRA-Date:16421 a:belonging to the essential nature or constitution of a thing b:being or relating to asemiconductor in which the concentration of charge carriers is characteristic
25、 of thematerial itself instead of the content of any impurities it contains2 a:originating or due to causes within a body,organ,or part b:originating and included wholly within an organ or part-compare EXTRINSIC 1b-intrinsically/-zi-k(&-)lE,-si-/adverb,7/20/2023,34,7/20/2023,35,7/20/2023,36,There ar
26、e two basic types of value,Intrinsic value:the good is the first type of value,e.g.,pleasure or happinessInstrumental value:all other things belong to the second type of value.The value(of a thing)is judged in terms of utility,or their usefulness in producing good consequences.,7/20/2023,37,摘要,效用（ut
27、ility）是用來衡量一個東西（thing）的工具價值（instrumental value）。什麼工具價值？人在使用這個東西之後，因為慾望的被滿足，而產生出快樂或愉快（happiness or pleasure），或好的結果（good consequence）。更具體的說，效用是用來衡量一個東西可以產生出多少總量的快樂或愉快（或這個東西有多少好的總量）。,7/20/2023,38,Difficulties and challenges against utilitarian,7/20/2023,39,The difficulties（1）,The good is a qualitative
28、concept.It is useless in terms of decision making.The good must be quantitative.,7/20/2023,40,The difficulties（2）,Quantitative process involves measuring,comparing,and quantifying.Trouble begins here.When several,say more than five or six,dependent attributes are involved,the problem becomes very co
29、mplicated.Decision maker usually find it hard to answer or even to understand the analysts hypothetical questions.,7/20/2023,41,The challenges(1),The ethical status,i.e.right or wrong,of any act always depends on the consequences,according to the utilitarian.Let us think two examples,Betray your fri
30、end and have a million dollars reward.An act will result in beneficial social consequences,but will cause the extinction of a species.Is it ethically better if we act on principle?Say,the principle of“Do not betray your friend.”,7/20/2023,42,The challenges(2),If we can generate a good-principle-and-
31、ethical act and,at the same time,it achieves the best consequences among all(less ethical)acts.Then this is what I called“an act under control”.That means a good principle implies an act,and that act implies the best consequences among all acts.QUESTION:Is this possible?The conclusion is that we hav
32、e NO control over the Utilitarians act under the good principle guidance.This means we might select a less ethical act under the good principle guidance.,7/20/2023,43,The challenges(3),Utilitarian tend to restrict the range of relevant subjects,usually current generations.Other values,such as trees,
33、animals,people in other countries,and future generations are excluded in their quantifying analyses due to the measurement problems.,7/20/2023,44,Ethical issues in economic analysis of environmental problems,7/20/2023,45,Ethical framework of classical economic analysis-ends and means,The end of econ
34、omic policy is the maximum satisfaction of individual desires,or maximum happiness,of current generations.The functioning of a free and competitive market is believed to be the ethically best means for attaining that end.,7/20/2023,46,Does economic analysis distort or ignore environmental issues?,So
35、me background,7/20/2023,47,Willingness to pay and want,or preference,Each consumer expresses his want,or preference,for a product in terms of willingness to pay(WTP)based on the benefits each(person)expects to derive from consumption.WTP is a measure of the marginal benefit.Preferences are wants tha
36、t the individual has rank-ordered.,7/20/2023,48,Allocative efficiency,The economic criterion that the value society places on an additional unit of the good be equivalent to the value of the resources given up to produce it.Or,a competitive market reaches a state where marginal benefit=marginal cost
37、.,7/20/2023,49,7/20/2023,50,Sagoffs three challenges against economic methods,7/20/2023,51,First,want belief(1),Want is neither true nor false,e.g.,I want chocolate ice cream.WTP is a good measure of the intensity of a persons want.Hence cost-benefit analysis is valid.Efficient resources allocation
38、can be discovered.Belief can be true or false and is subject to rational evaluation,e.g.,I believe killing tiger is wrong.WTP is a bad measure when immoral want is expressed in terms of WTP.,7/20/2023,52,First,want belief(2),When economic methods,e.g.,cost-benefit analysis,are involved in environmen
39、tal policy,it treats beliefs as if they were mere wants and seriously distorts the issue.Example:Timber industrys WTP for trees is higher than the recreational users.Does this mean the rational decision is to cut the tree down?,7/20/2023,53,Second,allocative efficiency criterion might not be ethical
40、(1),Utilitarions logic:maximizes goodEconomist identifies that peoples wants must be good.So we should maximize consumers wants or their preferences,according to utilitarions logic,based on the allocative efficiency criterion.And this is ethical.,7/20/2023,54,Second,allocative efficiency criterion m
41、ight not be ethical(2),Fact:personal preferences may be foolish,dangerous,or immoral due to lack of rational evaluations that can be defended by reasons(理由).Example:Excessive resources consumption of our society,a good want that needs to be satisfied according to economic theory,will definitely enda
42、nger the welfare of future generations.,7/20/2023,55,Second,allocative efficiency criterion might not be ethical(3),The challenge:Economic methodology indiscriminately take preference as good and maximizes this good according to allocative efficiency criterion will probably result in an unethical ac
43、t.,7/20/2023,56,Third,market analysis threatens our democratic process(1),A healthy liberal-democratic political process should be,liberal in the sense that we value personal liberty to pursue our individual goalsdemocratic in the sense that collectively we seek agreement about public goods and shar
44、ed goalstreating people as both consumer and citizencitizens exchange views,debate their merits,learn from each other,and reach agreement,7/20/2023,57,Third,market analysis threatens our democratic process(2),An unhealthy liberal-democratic political process begins when,politicians may follow the results of economic analysis and satisfy the demands of the majority without citizens exchange of views.They usually read the public opinion polls and act accordingly.Politician should act as an active leader rather than passive follower.,
