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1、An Introduction to Linguistics 语言学概论主讲人李二占2011年2月21日,Warming-up Questions 1.大学生的基本配备之一是“知识的建立”（龙应台语）。当我看见澳洲的小学生在学习内蒙古的沙漠化问题，德国的初中生在探讨南亚海啸所引发的贫富不均问题，加拿大的高中生在辩论欧盟和美国农业补助政策对加勒比海贫国的伤害，英国的社区学校在讨论全球暖化的对策，心中不免惊骇：中国的学生在学什么？,2.欧洲中世纪的大学号称要解决如下的问题：（1）信仰，（2）智慧，（3）思想，（4）知识，（5）技能。我们今天苦苦追寻的技能排在倒数第一的位置。3.著名的经济学家郎咸平
2、认为我们的教育在培养解题高手。可是我们好多人连题也不会解，否则，为什么我们那么在乎考试时划范围？,4.我们重技能而轻知识，重实用而轻求知，看得见物体这样有形的东西，但看不见理论等无形的东西。我们重视具体的对象性知识（object knowledge）而常常忽略工具性知识（instrumental knowledge），即宁愿要一个个的鸡蛋却不去关注那只下蛋的母鸡。5.英语，英语专业，学英语，英语学，它们是什么关系？,如果会讲英语就是专家，那么数量众多的英国人、美国人、澳大利亚人、新西兰人、加拿大人甚至于新加坡人、印度人等等就都是专家了。推而广之，所有会讲某种母语的人都是专家，而世界上所有的人都
3、会讲自己的母语，因此全世界人民都是专家。难道地球上的居民果真这么伟大吗？6.余秋雨认为中华文化不在乎实证，不在乎创新，可是实证和创新恰恰是,现代科学的本质所在。7.一点思考，与同学们共勉。如不喜欢，权当没说。大学是通才教育，其本质就是专业不对口（“狼语郎咸平之语”）。大学要给毕业生七种基本颜色，他一进入社会便可以配出万紫千红；若大学仅仅给他一色（仅仅读某一个方向），面对毕业以后市场的瞬息万变，,他的一色遂成无招以对（“钱语钱冠连之语”）。这些冷静的声音常常淹没在一片浮嚣之中。今天的大学充斥的是急功近利，弥漫的是低下恶俗，成为了蝙蝠这样的“二不像（neither fish nor fowl）”，
4、既没有大学的高远，也没有技校的实用，沦落为介于二者之间的职训中心（a hamburger-like training center）。人们关心的是如何以最低的,成本来获得那张毕业证书营业执照。大学生就业难的实质在于我国经济不发达，产业链处于低端，因为制造破鞋烂袜子不需要大学生就能轻松完成，而只有微软公司这样的高端产业才需要大学生的知识与创造力。因此，你们一定要努力，创造我们民族的高端企业。,应对就业难的具体方法可能在于“差异化”，即你一定要与众不同，比如你的成绩特别优异，比如你一定要有创造性，惟其如此，你才可以找到理想的职业！我仰望星空,它是那样寥廓而深邃；那无穷的真理，让我苦苦地求索、追随。
5、,我仰望星空,它是那样庄严而圣洁；那凛然的正义，让我充满热爱、感到敬畏。我仰望星空,它是那样自由而宁静；那博大的胸怀,让我的心灵栖息、依偎。我仰望星空，它是那样壮丽而光辉；那永恒的炽热，让我心中燃起希望的烈焰、响起春雷。,一个民族有一些关注天空的人，他们才有希望；一个民族只是关心脚下的事情，那是没有未来的。我们的民族是大有希望的民族！我希望同学们经常地仰望天空，学会做人，学会思考，学会知识和技能，做一个关心世界和国家命运的人（温家宝）。有两种东西，我对它们的思考是深沉合持久，它们在我心中唤起的惊奇和敬畏就会日新月异，不断增长，这就是我头上的星空和心中的道德定律（康德）。,相传，欧几里得讲锥体的
6、几何学，门弟子听讲，一人问：学此何用？欧几里得吩咐大徒弟：给这个青年三个铜子，他要有利可图才做学问。真的，欧几里得的时代，锥体的各种切面是无用的。时间过了两千年，到了17世纪，伽利略发现了炮弹的弹道是抛物线，这才和实际联系上。,新民周刊：在你的了解中，国外对中国学术界这种剽窃行为有什么反馈 吗？丁学良：国外对中国学术界这方面简直是他们把PRC(中华人民共和国)，Peoples Republic of China，解释成Peoples Republic of Cheating，欺骗、诈骗，因为中国盗用人家那个名牌造假，中国公司盗用人家设计他们是一起 来看的。,Knowledge is power
7、.(?)Ignorance is power.(丁学良),语言与语言学的力量举例1.语言=行动 Thank you.I love you.Your money or your life!You are fired!,2.语言=制序（institution）明朝朱元璋统治时期，人去世是不能随便说死的，要先看人的身份，具体规定如下：皇帝死称崩、公侯贵戚死称薨、大臣死称卒、士死称不禄、庶人死才能称死。这个规定给人们制造了很多麻烦。比如当时官员的丧礼，摆出灵堂，众人祭拜。当时有很多人都搞“撞门丧”。,所谓“撞门丧”是指祭拜的人和死掉的人不熟，有的根本就不认识。但同朝为官，死者为大，无论好坏都去拜一拜，
8、具体操作过程如下：进到灵堂，看清神位位置，如果不认识这人，就要先记住神位上的名字，然后跪地大哭：某某兄（一定要记准名字），你怎么就死了啊，兄弟我晚来一步啊。如果你这样说了，大家就会怀疑你是来砸场子的，你祭拜的是官员，怎么能用庶民的说法呢？,正确的方法是这样的，进到灵堂，先去问家属：您家老爷前居何职？家属回答：我家老爷原是兵部武选司郎中。这时心里就有底了，这是个五品官，该用“卒”。那就拜吧。别忙，还要再问一句：您家老爷可有世系爵位？家属回答：我家老爷袭伯爵位。还是仔细点好啊，差点就用错了。这时才能去神位前，跪地大哭：某某兄，你怎么就薨了啊，兄弟我晚来一步啊。大功告成，真累啊。,3.不懂语言学的人
9、会吃亏明隆庆二年（1568）湖广巡按御史突然一拥而上，共同弹劾辽王，王爷同志玩了这么多年，罪状自然是不难找的，一堆黑材料就这么报到了皇帝那里。皇帝大人虽对藩王一向也不待见，但怎么说也是自己的兄弟，听说这人不地道，便派了司法部副部长（刑部侍郎）洪朝选去调查此事。其实说到底，皇帝也不会把辽王怎么样，毕竟大家都姓朱，张居正对此也没有太大指望，教训他一下，出口恶气，也就到头了。,然而他们都高估了一点辽王的智商。人还没到，也没怎么着，辽王就急了，在房里转了几百个圈，感觉世界末日就要来了，于是灵机一动，在自己家里树了一面旗帜，上书四个大字“讼冤之纛”，壮志飘扬，十分拉风。这四个字的大致意思，是指自己受了冤
10、枉，非常郁闷，可实际效果却大不相同，因为辽王同志估计是书读得太少，他并不清楚，这种行为可以用一个成语描述揭竿而起，而它只适用于某种目的或场合。,于是他很快迎来了新的客人五百名全副武装的士兵，而原先拟定的警告处分，也一下子变成了开除废除王位。4.懂语言学的人有智慧明朝“靖难之战”时，燕王朱棣造反，打到了山东济南。朱棣要用大炮攻城，守城的将领铁铉找人连夜做了十几个大牌子，上面工工整整地写了“大明太祖高皇帝神牌”几个大字，挂在城墙的四周。这些木牌子真是比防弹衣还顶用，朱棣在城下,气急败坏，破口大骂，但就是不敢动真格的，而这一切都早在铁铉的预料之中。虽然天下所有的人都知道朱棣是反贼，但是朱棣毕竟还是有
11、一定的理论支持的，这个支持就是他老子朱元璋的遗训，所谓藩王靖难，扫除奸臣是也。其实也就是用老子来压孙子。可是现在铁铉挂出这些自己父亲的神牌，如果用大炮攻城的话，岂不是连老爹的神位也敢毁？,这是万万使不得的，朱棣何尝不知道这些所谓神牌可能是铁铉派人上山砍了木头下来，找几个测字先生写的，有何神圣性可言。但奇怪就奇怪在这里，大家都知道这玩意是假的，可就是没人敢动手去砸了它。而朱棣这种既当婊子又想立牌坊的心里也被铁铉充分利用，弄出了这么一幕滑稽戏。,On This Course（关于本课程）TextbookRequired:A New Concise Course on Linguistics for
12、 Students of English Optional:Linguistics:A Course BookGrading：There will have one final exam and a number of homework assignments.Homework 30%Final Exam 70%,Course ScheduleWeek 1-2 Introduction(1)Week 3-4 Phonology(2)Week 5 Morphology(3)Week 6-7 Syntax(4)Week 8-9 Semantics(5)Week 10-11 Pragmatics(6
13、),Week 12 Language Change(7)Week 13 Language,Society&Culture(8-9)Week 14 Language Acquisition(10)Week 15 Second Language Acquisition(11)Week 16 Language and Brain(12),Week 17-19 Review Week 20 Final Exam Office Hours 4:00-6:00 Wednesday Lecture 1 Introduction to Linguistics Teaching aims:通过教学，使学生了解语
14、言学定义、语言学研究对象与研究问题、语言研究中一些重要区分，掌握语言学,研究范围、语言基本定义以及语言的区别性特征，能应用语言和语言学的基本知识来描写、解释或解决一些语言现象或实际问题。Teaching contents:(to see the Page v)Allocation of time:4 periods Teaching methods:lecture by teacher,oral questions and class discussion,Teaching procedure:1 What is language?1-1 Definitions of languageWebs
15、ter s New World Dictionary(P.805)1(a)human speech;(b)the ability to communicate by this means;(c)a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is,attributed,used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings;(d)the written representation of such a system2(a
16、)any means of expressing or communicating,as gestures,signs,or animal sounds;(b)a special set of symbols;letters,numerals,rules etc.used for the transmission of information,as in a computer;.,Language is a tool for human communication.(Its function only,and there are other tools for communication.语言
17、基本工具论)Language is a set of rules.(There are other rule-governed systems.语言结构系统论)Sapirs definition:工具论Halls definition:社会制度论 Chomskys definition:语言集合论,American anthropologist and linguist,and a leader in American structural linguistics.He was one of the creators of what is now called the Sapir-Whorf
18、hypothesis.He is arguably the most influential figure in American linguistics,influencing several generations of linguists across several schools of the discipline.,Edward Sapir(1884-1939)was a German-born,Noam Chomsky(1928-),founder of TG(P.42),a revolution to structuralism.LAD-(P.145)-PPH-Universa
19、l Grammar ST-EST-REST,语言生物进化论，语言文化形态论，语言行为方式论，语言社会共变论，语言先天能力论，语言行为功能论,语言认知能力论。四种语言观自足系统观，交际工具观，天赋能力观和文化语言观。代表人物分别是索绪尔、斯大林、乔姆斯基和洪堡特。,A generally accepted definition:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(1)The element system reflects the fact that language provi
20、des us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than proving us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances.,(2)Arbitrary means that between the signifier(sound)and the signified(concept),there is no natural,necessary or intrinsic connection.(3)Vocal means the most importa
21、nt medium of language is speech sound,not the written form.(4)Symbols means something that represents something else,such as a drawing of a heart pierced by an arrow,standing for romantic love.,具体代表抽象，而语言则是抽象代表具体。(5)Human means human-specific,different from animal communication systems.(6)Communicat
22、ion refers to the function of language.,1-2 Design features Design or defining means to give the distinguishing characteristics of or to differentiate.(to describe,to mark out,de+sign)Defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.,Charles Francis H
23、ockett(January 17,1916-November 3,2000)was an American linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralism.He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as distributionalism or taxonomic structuralism.,In his“Note on Structure”he argues that lingui
24、stics can be seen as a game and as a science.A linguist as player has a freedom for experimentation on all the utterances of a language,but no criterion to compare his analysis with other linguists.Late in his career,he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics which he called a
25、theory spawned by a generation of vipers.,Arbitrariness is synonymous with neither“conventional”nor the speakers free choice.It means the lack of natural,priori and logical relationship between the signifier and the signified.The converse of arbitrariness is non-arbitrariness,including motivation(理据
26、性)and iconicity(象似性).（任意性、理据性和象似性及其相互关系是当今语言研究的热点）,索绪尔首先把任意性看作语言事实和语言属性。他认为语言符号由音响形象和概念组成，即语言符号的语音和语义部分。他把前者叫做能指，后者叫做所指。他在普通语言学教程中解释了任意性的涵义:能指和所指的联系是任意的，即语言是任意的，例如“姊妹”的观念在英语里同用来做它的能指的sister/sIst/这串声音没有任何内在的联系，它也可以用任何别的声音表示，就是说，为什么用sister而不用其他形式无道理可言。,Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913),Swiss,founder of
27、 structuralism,modern linguistics,semiology.Course in General Linguistics,1916,从前有个老太婆，初次跟外国人有点接触，她就稀奇得简直不相信。她说，他们说话真怪，明明是五个，法国人要说是三个（cinqsank五）；明明是十，日本人偏偏要说是九（）；明明是水，英国人偏偏要说是窝头（water）。盐城话里有“妈妈猪”的说法，没有对应的“爸爸猪”。有“家庭主妇”而无“家庭主男”的说法语言的非理性。,Productivity:Also calls creativity or recursiveness.It partly or
28、iginates from duality.Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistics units to from an infinite set of sentences,most of which we are never before produced or heard.Language is productive in another sense:its potential to produce endless sentences.He bought a book which was w
29、ritten by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who,Duality:The advantage of duality lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with.For instance,tens of thousands of words are produced out of a small of sounds,around 48 in the case of the English languag
30、e.,Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.动物之间的沟通无法显示过去或未来,只能表示当前发生的事。譬如动物无法表示“我昨天喝了很多水”，“我明天要爬上那棵树”只能表示现在哪里有什么东西,像是蜜蜂的舞蹈,可以根据现在花蜜远近的不同而有不同的类型,但是它不会表达我明天要去哪里采花蜜或我昨天采的花蜜在哪里。,Cultural transmission is the process of passing on culturally relevan
31、t knowledge,skills,attitudes,and values from person to person or from culture to culture.,语言是用于人类交际的一种任意的、口语的符号系统。人类语言具有双重性，即语音和意义两种系统，而动物只有十分简单的声音系统。人类语言具有创造性，即语言使用者可以产生和理解无数个句子，而动物只有十分有限的几个或十几个信号。人类语言具有位移性，即可以用语言指称或谈论远离当时当地的东西。动物不能传达昨天、明天或几里之外的消息。,人类语言具有替换性，即在同一语言社团中，一切成员都能产生和理解同样的符号，而对动物而言，雄性能产生的
32、信号雌性不能产生，雌性能理解的信号雄性不能理解。人类语言具有区分性，语音的符号可以分析成一个个的成分，中间有明显的界限。动物的声音信号不能分为单个成分，只能是一个连续体。人类语言具有文化性，人类语言可以用来搪塞、撒谎、讽刺、嘲笑等，动物则不会用声音欺骗自己的同伙。,1.Linguists have proposed various definitions of language,but the following one is generally accepted:Language is a system of arbitrary v _ symbols used for human comm
33、unication.2.Language is p _ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new linguistic signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences.,3.During the four definitions of language,which one is different from others?A.“Langua
34、ge is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”.B.“Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols”.C.“From now on I will consid
35、er language to be a set of sentences,each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”.D.“Language is the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units”.,4.The fact that different words can be used to refer to the same obj
36、ect in different languages shows that language is _.A.productive B.double-structured C.culturally transmitted D.arbitrary 5.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language and some of them are shared by animal communication systems.,考研试题1.Animal communication systems are genetical
37、ly transmitted,while human language is _ transmitted.That is,human language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning,rather than by instinct.(武汉大学),2.What are the major design features of language?（厦门大学 2004）3.One of the main features of our human language is arbitrarine
38、ss.Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to?Give examples if necessary(北师大 2003年试题）4.Explain the following terms,giving examples where necessary.design feature(中山大学 2003),5.Define the following terms.language,design feature（中国海洋大学 1999）6.List the six important characteristics of human
39、language（大连外国语学院）7.1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?A)Language is a system.B)Language is symbol.,C)Animals also have language.D)Language is arbitrary（南师大）8.Language is both arbitrary and non-arbitrary.（南师大）9.The relationship between a speech sound and the meaning it rep
40、resents is _.A)natural B)arbitrary C)familiar D)non-arbitrary（南师大）10.Language is culturally transmitted.,11._ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.a.Chomsky b.Saussure c.Bloomfield d.John Lyons（江苏大学）12.2Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design featu
41、res of human language.（Justify the following claims or statements.）（江苏大学）,13.Give one concept to cover the following statement。1)Human language can be used to refer to real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future.It can even be used to talk about language itself.（江苏大学）14.Define the followi
42、ng terms(30%)1.arbitrariness 5.distinctive features（江苏大学）,15.名词解释 1.Distinctive feature 6.Recursive rule 论述题 1.What contribution did Saussure make to modern linguistics?（广东商学院 2009）16.(2)Wherever humans exist,language exists.(3)All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete units to form an in
43、finite set of possible sentences.（对外经贸大学）,1.2 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics does not study any particular languages,but languages in general.,Language 有两层含义：一是a human system of communication which uses structured vocal sounds and can
44、 be embodied in other media such as writing,print,and physical signs，这里的language没有单复数概念，指人类特有的一种能力。从本质与现象或者抽象和具体的二分法出发，这里的language属于本质和抽象。,二是a particular instance of this system,such as English,Chinese,Arabic and Latin.这里的language是 现象和具体。By scientific it means the study is based on the systematic in
45、vestigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.,Linguistics is now empirical rather than speculative or intuitive and it operates with publicly variable data obtained by means of observation or experiment.To collect and observe language factsto m
46、ake generalizationsto formulate hypothesesto check the hypotheses,Data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.（dialectical:两种力量的对立，源于dialect，即speak和argue的意思）1.1.2 The scope of linguistics第一层 Linguistics 第二层 General linguistics 第三层 Branches of linguistics,To treat language as a whole:于是我们有
47、了general linguistics,即whole general 定义见para.2 of p.2To treat language as branches or layers or facets:于是我们有了the core vs.non-core of linguistics 之分Within language itself=core the study of pure speech sounds=phonetics,The study of(speech sounds+meaning)=phonologyThe study of(morphemes+morphemes=words)
48、=morphologyThe study of(words+words=sentences)=syntax The study of purely linguistic meaning of(words+sentences)=semantics,The study of(purely linguistic meaning+context)=pragmatics(4)Beyond language itself=interdisciplinaryThe study of(language+society)=sociolinguisticsThe study of(language+psychol
49、ogy)=psycholinguistics,The study of(language+application)=applied linguistic the teaching of FL and L2 1.1.3 Some distinctions in linguistics(not in language)语言研究中的二元对立 modern linguistics descriptive+synchronic+speech+langue+competence+modern,Traditional grammar prescriptive+diachronic+writing+parol
50、e+performance+traditional(1)Traditional grammar is mostly prescriptive.?因为古代交流的欠发达,语言研究的对象是用于religious(religion)和 literary(literature)场合的written language，它很“high”，但很僵硬而不易改变，因此这种研究只能to lay down rules for correct and,standard behavior in using language,即tell people what they should say.我们用一个字概括这种研究取向，
