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1、Chapter Three,Lexicon,Three elements in language:,1.speech sounds(Pronunciation)2.grammar 3.vocabulary,“Without grammar,very little can be conveyed;without vocabulary,nothing can be conveyed.”(Wilkins,1972),“No matter how well the student learns grammar,no matter how successfully he masters the soun
2、ds of a second language,without words to express a wide range of meanings,communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way.”(McCarthy,1990),Your vocabulary can be divided into:speaking vocabulary writing vocabulary reading vocabulary guess vocabulary,active,passive,葛传槼教授（1981）说：“要掌
3、握词的运用，决不可停留在“知识”上，必须从读物的实例中揣摩，模仿，才能做到正确、妥帖”。,柯葳与董燕萍（2001）考察受试在三种不同的学习条件下（内容易懂短文、内容费解短文、单词表）学习英语生词。实验结果表明，“内容易懂的上下文，不论是从短期效果还是从长期效果上看，都比单词表更有利于对二语词汇的意思的记忆。内容费解的短文在对词义及词形的记忆效果方面与单词表没有区别。”,Lexicon has two meanings:1.lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language.2.lexicon is the analysis and
4、creation of words.,Lexicon,1.What is Word?2.The Formation of Word 3.Lexical Change,1.What is Word?,1.1 Features of Words1.2 Classifications of Words,1.1 Features of Words 1)Stability 2)Relative uninterruptibility 3)A minimum free form,1)Stability(稳定性)Stability means that the constituents of word can
5、 not be rearranged.,cannot,2)Relative uninterruptibility(相对连续性)It means that word cannot be interrupted and nothing can be inserted into a word.,3)A minimum free form(最小自由形式)By“minimum free form”,Bloomfield means that word is the smallest unit which can be used as a complete utterance.e.g.-Will you
6、help me?-Certainly.,1.2 Classifications of Words,1)Variable and invariable words 2)Grammatical and lexical words 3)Closed-class and open-class words,1)Variable and invariable words(可变化词和不变词)Variable words refer to the words which can have inflectional endings(曲折后缀).,follow mat clear fast follows mat
7、s clearer faster following clearest fastest followed,2)Grammatical and lexical words（语法词和词汇词）Grammatical or function words refer to those words whose role is largely or wholly grammatical,such as conjunctions,prepositions,articles and pronouns.,Lexical or content words carry lexical meanings or main
8、 content of a language,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs.,3)Closed-class and open-class words(封闭类词和开放类词)Lexical words are sometimes called open-class words because new words can be added to these classes.But the grammatical words belong to the closed-class words because new members are not
9、regularly added.,新词举例,现代汉语词典第5版中收录了6000多个新词条.经济类：彩民、持仓量、充值、冲高、套现。金融保险类：财产保险、金融危机、人寿保险、世界银行、投资银行、银行卡、不良贷款。科技类：编程、短信息、高科技、浏览器、主板。农业类：催熟、错季、观光农业、坑农、三农。商业类：便利店、承购、承销、传销、断码。公交类：车位、城铁、打表、起步价、站点、直航、中巴。,不收网络词汇“大侠”、“斑竹”、“菜鸟”、“灌水”、“美眉”在网络上十分流行的网络语言在现汉第5版中却都没有收录。,An Sample Text,一个11岁学生写的“字母+数字+汉字”的大杂烩日记：“昨晚，我的
10、JJ带着他的青蛙BF到我家来吃饭。在饭桌上，JJ的BF一个劲儿地对我妈妈PMP，说她年轻的时候一定是个漂亮MM。那酱紫真是好BT，7456”,Homework 1,Can the new cyber-words corrupt the pureness of the Chinese language?pro:concise,active con:nonstandard,abnormal,Homework II,Make a list of the comparison among the vowels in the systems of Jones,Gimson and K.K.,2.The
11、Formation of Word,2.1 Morphology and morpheme 2.2 Types of morphemes 2.3 Inflection and word formation 2.4 Allomorph,2.1 Morphology and Morpheme,Morphology(形态学)Morphology studies the internal structure of word and the rules by which words are formed.,Is word the smallest meaningful unit of language?
12、,A B desirable undesirable likely unlikely happy unhappy developed undeveloped,Morpheme(语素,词素)Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language,which cannot be divided further.,2.2 Types of Morpheme,Free and bound morphemeInflectional and derivational affixRoot,affix and stem,Free and bound morph
13、eme(自由语素和粘着语素)A free morpheme is one that may occur alone or may constitute a word by itself.e.g.bed,tree,sing,dance A bound morpheme cannot occur alone.e.g.dogs,national,disclose,A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme.,Inflectional and derivational affix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）Inflectional
14、 Derivational walks sleepy walked national walking amazement stars rewrite watches misunderstand,Can you find any difference between inflectional and derivational affix?,IA do not change the word class they attach to,but DA might or might not.,The addition of DA will produce a new word,but IA cannot
15、,it is the same word but with different grammatical forms.,In English,IA are mostly suffixes,but DA can be prefixes or suffixes.,Root,affix and stem(词根，词缀，词干)A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed.An affix is the bound morpheme that can be used only when added to another m
16、orpheme.e.g.painter,reread,undesirable,internationalism prefix suffix,A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.e.g.disagrees,disagreements,symbol symbolize symbolization,Stem is a term which is commonly used for the uninflected part of a word,so
17、a stem may contain a _ and_.,root,derivational affixes,When all the affixes are removed,we get _;when only the inflectional affix is removed,we get _.,root,stem,root stem,believe believable unbelievable,believe,believe,believe,believe,believable,unbelievable,Analyze the following words and show how
18、many morphemes each of them contains,and the root and the stem they contain：internationalism，downfall，unexceptionableness，ungentlemanliness,down,fall,cept,gentle,man,2.3 Inflection and word formation,InflectionMorphology Compounding Word-formation Derivation,Inflection(屈折变化）Inflection is the manifes
19、tation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.,Inflectional affixes include(p88):(1)number:table/tables apple/apples(2)person,finiteness,and aspect(人称，限定性，体）(3)case:boys universitys,Finiteness(限定性),A verb is finite if it shows agreement with the subject and indicat
20、es tense.e.g.He writes well.He wrote well.A verb is non-finite if it does not show agreement with the subject or indicate tense.e.g.He will write a letter.He has to write a letter.,Aspect(体),Aspect is the particular form of a verb which shows the state of the action.Two aspects in English:the perfec
21、tive and the progressive.e.g.perfective:I have written several books.(=Have+-ed)progressive:I am reading a good book.(=Be+-ing),Word formation,Word formation refers to the process of creating new words.Word formation can be further classified into two types:compounding and derivation.,Compounding,Co
22、mpounding is a word-formation process through which new words are created by combining at least two _ morphemes.,free,Noun compounds short+hand shorthand(Adj+N)go+between go-between(V+Prep)Verb compounds lip+read lipread(N+V)under+go undergo(Adv+V)Adjective compounds home+sick homesick(N+Adj)peace+l
23、oving peace-loving(N+V-ing),Derivation,Derivation is the process in which new words are created though adding _ affixes to already existing words.Words thus created are called derivations or derivational words.,derivational,suffixes:-ful cheerful,useful,grateful-able acceptable,agreeable,comfortable
24、-ship leadership,friendship,hardship-ify simplify,beautify,amplifyprefixes:dis-dislike,dishonest,disagree ex-ex-wife,ex-president inter-international,interact,interchange,2.4 Allomorph,phoneme,allophone,How about a morpheme?,The regular plural morpheme“-s”has at least three pronunciations:s as in“st
25、ates”z as in“dogs”iz as in“boxes”,The verb morpheme“do”has three quite distinct pronunciations in the words“do”,“does”and“dont”.,The linking verb morpheme“be”has three forms“am”,“is”and“are”when it is used after different subjects.,phoneme,allophone,How about a morpheme?,allomorph,Allomorph(语素变体)An
26、allomorph is a variant of a morpheme as actually realized in speech or writing.,morpheme plural allomorph s z iz morpheme past allomorph d t id lived asked wanted,In English,the negative prefix in-has several allomorphs:im-before/m/,/p/,/b/il-before/l/ir-before/r/and in-before all the other sounds,A
27、llomorphs vary in shape or pronunciation according to their conditions of use,but not as to_.,meaning,When one phoneme is used in different contexts,this phoneme may have different pronunciations.These different pronunciations are called _ of this phoneme.When one morpheme is used in different conte
28、xts,this morpheme may have different pronunciations/forms.These different pronunciations/forms are called _ of this morpheme.,allophones,allomorphs,Allomorphs of a morpheme:1.represent the same meaning,or serve the same grammatical function;2.are in complementary distribution,i.e.they never occur in
29、 the same context.,3.Lexical Change,3.1 Lexical Change Proper3.2 Phonological Change3.3 Morpho-syntactical Change3.4 Semantic Change3.5 Orthographic Change,proper:in its actual,limited sense;itself e.g.the town proper,excluding the suburbs.严格意义上的城市不包括郊区,3.1 Lexical Change Proper(严格意义上的词汇变化),3.1 Lexi
30、cal Change Proper(严格意义上的词汇变化),1)Invention2)Blending3)Abbreviation4)Acronym5)Back-formation6)Analogical creation7)Borrowing,minor word formation processes,1)Invention(新创词语)Some words are invented by means of the economic activities and they come directly from the consumer goods,their producers or the
31、ir brand names.e.g.kodak,coke,nylon,2)Blending(混成法)(1)joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word e.g.smoke+fog smog mean+stingy mingy news+broadcast newscast,(2)joining the initial parts of the two words e.g.campus+police campo psychological+warfare psywar biogr
32、aphical+picture biopic,American+Indian,Amerind,3)Abbreviation(缩写词)（1）front clipping advertisement ad dormitory dorm professor prof(2)back clipping telephone phone omnibus bus areoplane plane(3)front and back clipping influenza flu refrigerator fridge prescription script,4)Acronym(缩略语）Acronyms are wo
33、rds derived from the initials of several words.e.g.World Trade Organization WTO World Bank WB Very Important Person VIPFederal Bureau of Investigation FBI,5)Back-formation(逆构词法)Back-formation refers to a process of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a w
34、ord already in the language.e.g.editor day-dreamer beggar greedy,edit v.,day-dream v.,beg v.,greed n.,6)Analogical creation(类推构词)It can account for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular in some English verbs.e.g.Old New learn learnt learned smell smelt smelled burn burnt burned,misanal
35、ysis,7)Borrowing(借词)English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.e.g.Latin:cancer,tumor,e.g.,i.e.,etc.,German:gemutlich,hamburger,frankfurter,.Chinese:tea,taiji,kung-fu,3.2 Phonological Change,Phonological change refers to changes in sound le
36、ading to changes in form.,The diphthong/au/was originally pronounced as the long vowel/u:/.old new mus/mu:s/mouse/maus/hus/hu:s/house/haus/,1)loss 2)addition 3)metathesis 4)assimilation,3.2 Phonological Change,1)Loss(语音脱落)The loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the sound.For example,we cann
37、ot find the phoneme/x/any more in modern English.,2)Addition(添加)Sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.For example,the word“rapscallion”was formed by adding the habitual/p/inside the root“rascal”.,3)Metathesis(换位)Metathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of so
38、unds or letters.e.g.Old New ax/aks/ask/ask/brid bird tax task,4)Assimilation(同化)Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of a following sound.e.g.five past v f has to z s e.g.the negative prefixes:im-,il-,or ir-should be in-etymologically.,3.3 Morpho-syntactical Chan
39、ge,Morpho-syntactical change refers to the changes in the morphological and syntactical features of words.,InflectionMorphology Word-formation,Morphological Change(形态变化)The present section is concerned with the part of the morphological change that deals with inflections.e.g.Old New goeth goes doest
40、 do wayes ways,Syntactical Change(句法变化)The English speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth centurys double comparative,such as more lower,more gladder.At the time of Shakespeare,negation was expressed by putting the negative particle“not”at the end of the sentence,such as He saw you not,I love th
41、ee not.,When we study grammar of a language,we are concerned with syntax and the part of its morphology that deals with inflections.So the title of this section can also be called _change.,grammatical,3.4 Semantic Change,1)Broadening2)Narrowing3)Meaning Shift4)Class Shift5)Folk Etymology,1)Broadenin
42、g(词义扩大)When the meaning of a word becomes broader,that word means everything it used to mean,and more.e.g.bird young bird any kind of bird holiday a day of religious significance a day for rest,2)Narrowing(词义缩小)In Bible,God says of the herds and trees,“to you they shall be for meat”meat food edible
43、flesh of animals girl young person of either sex young woman,“rats and mice and such small deer”-King Lear,deer animal,a particular kind of animal,3)Meaning Shift（词义转移）The meaning of some words is different from their original meaning.e.g.“silly”used to mean“happy”in old English.e.g.When Juliet tell
44、s Romeo,“I am too fond”,she is not claiming she likes Romeo too much.She means,“I am too foolish”,4)Class Shift(词性变化)By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process.e.g.window a glass-filled opening in the wall(N)put window frames in a ho
45、use(v)telephone an apparatus(N)speak by telephone(V),5)Folk Etymology(俗词源)Folk etymology is a particular type of misanalysis in which a word is modified in terms of familiar words.e.g.O.E.sam-blind(half-blind),M.E.sand-blind,O.E.shamfast(ashamed),M.E.,shamefaced,3.5 Orthographic Change,Orthographic
46、change(拼写变化)refers to change in the spelling of words.e.g.Old New Iesus Jesus sate sat sunne sun,Lexicon,1.What is Word?2.The Formation of Word 3.Lexical Change,1.What is Word?,1.1 Features of Words1.2 Classifications of Words,2.The Formation of Word,2.1 Morphology and morpheme 2.2 Types of morphemes 2.3 Inflection and word formation 2.4 Allomorph,3.Lexical Change,3.1 Lexical Change Proper3.2 Phonological Change3.3 Morpho-syntactical Change3.4 Semantic Change3.5 Orthographic Change,Have a good time!,
