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1、第6章 种群生活史,第一节 生活史概述 个体大小(size),生长率(growth rate)、繁殖(reproduction)和寿命(longevity)和扩散(dispersal)。第二节 繁殖成效 繁殖价值,亲本投资,繁殖成本第三节 繁殖格局 一次繁殖和多次繁殖,生活年限与繁殖第四节 繁殖策略 r选择和K选择 R-、C-、S-选择第五节 性选择 植物的选择受精,动物的性选择,第一节 生活史概述,生活史:是指生物个体一生中生长和繁殖的模式。生活史的关键组合是个体大小(size),生长率(growth rate)、繁殖(reproduction)、寿命(longevity)及扩散(dispe
2、rsal)。,一、个体大小,是有机体最明显的表型性状,不但不同类群的个体大小各异,即使在同一种群中的不同个体之间,个体大小也有或大或小的差异。,The effects of body size,The body sizes of organisms span a tremendous range.In linear dimension,this scale extends from bacteria 1 micrometer in length to redwoods 100 meters tall(not including the roots),a span of eight orders
3、 of magnitude.Even within a taxon,there is a great range of body sizes(Fig.7.1).,Fig.7.1 Frequency distributions of number of species with respect to log body mass for North American mammals(a),birds(b),and freshwater fish.,The effects of body size,Body size has an important influence on life.These
4、effects can be ecological,physiological,or both.An organisms total food requirements increase with increasing size,while per-gram food requirements decrease.Larger organisms have lower risks of predation.Vulnerability to physical factors also varies with size.Larger organisms generally have longer l
5、ife spans and thus longer generation times,which affect the potential rate of evolution via natural selection.,Copes law(科普定律),Within a particular taxonomic group,size tends to increase over evolutionary time,this notion is referred to as Copes law.For example,in minnows(鲤科小鱼),those species closest
6、to the phylogenetic root of the family are the smallest.The common ancestor of equines(马科动物),Hyracotherium,the dawn horse,was a small animal.The fossil record indicated steadily increase in size.But other lines of horse-like mammals did not show this trend.,100 grams hypothesis,The distribution of m
7、ammalian body sizes has a mode at about 100 grams.100 grams represents an optimal body size in the mammals.The optimal body size is a balance between these two limitations.(1)the acquisition of energy,which increases with mass raised to the 0.75 power.(2)the rate of conversion of energy to offspring
8、,which changes as a function of mass to the 0.25 power.,Reproductive power is maximal for animals of about 100 grams.,Allometry(异速生长),The situation in which different morphological characters change at different rates in referred to as allometry.The general equation for allometric relationships is Y
9、=aXb.In Fig.7.3 the relationship between body weight and brain weight for mammals is plotted on a log-log scale.The relationship is described by the equation Y=0.16 X 0.67,Y=0.16 X 0.67,Allometric changes,Y=aXbLog Y=log a+b log x 假若 b 1,the reverse is true.如:图7.3 brain mass vs body weight.10,000kg a
10、nimal,the brain/body ratio is 0.0056,For a 100gram animal,the ratio is 0.018.The brain weights change at a slower rate.,Kleibers law,Surface area varies as the square of the linear dimension,whereas the volume varies as its cube.In this case,the allometric equation would be Y=a X 2/3 Where Y is the
11、surface area and x is the volume.Mammals show a consistent allometric relationship between metabolic rate and body mass in which the slope is 0.75,二、生长和发育,生长(growth)有两种含义,一种为生物体生物物质的增加;另一种为生物细胞数量的增加。值得注意的是,细胞数量与生物物质并不总是一起增加。生物个体几乎都具有相似的生长方式,停滞期:这是生物体的准备生长期。概括起来可能受幼株个体小、分裂细胞少、器官尚未完全形成、获取营养的能力小和环境条件尚未
12、达到最适期等因素的影响。指数期:这是生物的真正生长期。生长的内外因素都达到最有利状态。静止期:当越来越多的细胞开始死亡,细胞分裂乃至组织和器官的形成越来越慢,最终达到平衡,呈相对静止状态。一般把生物体各部分器官的不均匀和不成比例的生长称为异速生长。研究异速生长是将生长中的整体与部分,或部分与部分之间进行对应研究。,三、繁殖,繁殖是指有机体产出与自己相似后代的现象。“繁殖”和“生殖”这两个词虽经常通用,但严格地说,繁殖的含义比较广,它是生物形成新个体的所有方式的总称,包括营养繁殖(vegetative propagation)、孢子生殖(spore reproduction)和有性生殖(sexu
13、al reproduction)。营养繁殖指生物营养体的一部分生长发育为一个新个体的繁殖方式。孢子生殖指生殖细胞即孢子,不经过有性过程而直接发育成新个体的繁殖方式。有性生殖指通过两性细胞的结合形成新个体的繁殖方式。有时把营养繁殖和孢子生殖并称为无性生殖(asexual reproduction)。生物繁殖方式的生态学意义:在现存环境条件下的扩展性;对多变环境的适应性;繁殖速度;繁殖潜力;在自然选择压力下的进货速度。比较而言,无性生殖不经过复杂的有性过程和胚胎发育阶段,子代来自同一基因型的亲体,因而在适应性与繁殖潜力上处于劣势。,四、扩散,1.扩散(dispersal):指生物个体或繁殖体从一个
14、生境转移到另一个生境中。可以认为扩散是生物进化的一种方法,用来躲避种内竞争和避免近亲繁殖。,2.植物的扩散,除水生浮游植物外,其他植物个体均为固着生长,只有其繁殖体具可动性,而大多数植物繁殖体的扩散均需要借助于某种媒介,属于被动扩散,所以,植物的扩散一般称为繁殖体的传播。植物的繁殖体包括孢子、种子、果实、块根、鳞茎、块茎、根状茎以及能够用于繁殖的植物体的任何部分(例如,某些种类的叶和老根)。,3.扩散意义,动植物的扩散具有同等重要的生物学和生态学意义:可以使种群内和种群间的个体得以交换,防止长期近亲繁殖而产生的衰退现象。可以补充或维持在正常分布区以外的暂时性分布区域的种群数量。扩大种群的分布区
15、。对于动物来说,扩散可能带来天敌侵袭、存活和繁殖成功率降低等诸多风险,但也可能降低暴露给捕食者和染上疾病的机会,增加遇到资源和配偶的机会。并由于杂种优势而产生更多的合适后代的机会。,第二节 繁殖成效,一、繁殖价所有生物都不得不在分配给当前繁殖(Current reproduction)的能量和分配给存活的能量之间进行权衡,后者与未来的繁殖(future reproduction)相关联。生殖价(reproduction value)是该个体马上要生产的后代数量加上那些预期的其在以后的生命过程中要生产的后代数量。进化预期使个体传递给下一世代的总后代数量最大,换句话说,使个体出生时的生殖价最大。如
16、果未来生命期望低,分配给当前繁殖的能量应该高,而如果剩下的预期寿命很长,分配给当前繁殖的能量应该较低。,The reproductive value,V=(lt/lx)(mx)(Nt/Nx)Where lx is the age-specific survivorship mx is the age-specific birth rateN is population sizex is the current age(lt/lx)represents the probability of surviving from age x to age t.A low probability of su
17、rvival should result in a low reproductive value.,Fig.7.7 Age-specific changes in(a)mean annual survival of female sparrowhawks.,Fig.7.7 Age-specific changes in(b)mean annual production of young of female sparrowhawks.,Fig.7.7 Age-specific changes in(c)reproductive value of female sparrowhawks.,Natu
18、ral selection will have less impact on deleterious mutations whose effects are manifest after the peak in reproductive value.Consequently,senescence may result from the accumulation of such mutations.,Present versus future reproduction,Vx=mx+(lt/lx)(mt)Where mx represents the current reproductive va
19、lue.Survivorship curves,type I,II,and III.,二、亲本投资,生物有机体在生产子代以及抚育和管护子代时所消耗的能量、时间和资源量,称为亲本投资。,三、繁殖成本,生物有机体在繁殖后代时对能量或资源的所有消费,称为繁殖成本。,第三节 繁殖格局,一、一次繁殖和多次繁殖一次繁殖生物:指在生活史中只繁殖一次即死亡的生物。多次繁殖生物:一生中能够繁殖多次的生物。,生态对策(生活史对策):生物适应于所生存的环境并朝着一定的方向进化的对策。一、r-选择和K-选择1.K-选择:K-选择的生物种群比较稳定,其种群密度常处于K值附近,可称为K-对策者。他们通常出生率低,大型个体
20、和寿命长,具有较完善的幼体保护机制,子代死亡率低。一般扩散能力较弱,但竞争力较强,即把有限能量资源更多投入到提高竞争能力上。适应于稳定的栖息生境。2.r-选择:r-选择的生物,他们的种群密度很不稳定,很少达到K值,大部分时间保持在逻辑斯谛曲线的上升段,为高增长率。属于r-选择的生物称为r-对策者。通常出生率高、寿命短、小型个体,常常缺乏保护后代的机制,子代死亡率高。通常有较强的扩散能力,适应于多变的栖息环境(选择有利于高rm值,因为rmLn Ro/T,其中R0为净生殖率,T为平均世代时间,所以高rm值可通过提高净生殖率和缩短世代时间达到)。,生态对策,K-对策者是以提高竞争能力,以“质”取胜;
21、r-对策者是以提高增殖能力和扩散能力,以“量”取胜。所以有的学者将r-对策者称为“机会主义者”(opportunists)。r-对策者的高死亡率,广运动性和连续地面临新局面,可能使其成为物种形成的丰富源泉。,The theory of r-and K-selection,r-selected species are commonly found at low population densities,where growth is exponential.K-selected species face intense intraspecific competition for scarce r
22、esources.,r-K连续对策系统,生物适应环境会朝着两种不同的进化方向-r选择和K选择发展。这种选择的结果,使一部分特征与r-选择结合,使另一部分特征与K-选择结合,从而形成两种不同的生活史对策类型,即r-对策和K-对策。在r-对策和K-对策之间,中间有很多过渡类型,有的更接近于r-对策,有的更接近于K-对策,这是一个连续变化的谱系,称为r-K连续对策系统。,C-S-R selections,S-selection means specialist selection,which favors the present success.Under s-selection,the speci
23、es evolves toward to be a confined and endemic species.C-selection means colonizer selection,which favors the future success.These species are high starvation tolerance,and wide distribution,a kind of colonizers.,第五节 性选择,一、植物的选择受精 选择受精:具有特定遗传基础的精核与卵细胞优先受精的现象。,二、动物的性选择,雌雄不仅在生殖器官的结构上有所区别,而且常常在行为、大小和许多
24、形态特征上有许多不同之处。雄孔雀的尾、雄芦苇莺的鸣啭和雄鹿的叉角等许多性状,都是性选择的结果。性选择是由于竞争配偶中生殖成效区别所引起的。在两性间对后代投入的差别较大,为了接近高投入性别(一般是雌性),低投入性别者(一般是雄性)之间的竞争也就越激烈;高投入性别的更加挑剔,也必然从低投入性别那里获得更好的代价(回报)。总之,雄性应该是有进攻性的,雌性应该是挑剔性的。性选择可能通过两条途径而产生性内选择(intrasexual selection),即通过同性成员间的配偶竞争,或通过偏爱异性的某个独特特征的性间选择(intersexual selection),或者两条途径兼而有之。性内选择可以解
25、释打斗武器的发生,如雄性哺乳动物的鹿角、洞角、獠牙、大犬齿。另一方面,性间选择对极乐鸟、孔雀等雄鸟形成明显无用的软件,如奢侈的尾和头羽等提供了解释。,Sexual selection,The competition among males selects for size of weapons and body and for striking plumage(羽衣)patterns.Mate competition is a male trait and that mate choice is a female trait.The reproductive investment.Sperm
26、are cheap and eggs are costly.So it pays females to select the best mate who will pass on the best genes to the next generation.Handicap hypothesis:make the secondary male more vulnerable to predation or in any other way reduce the secondary males probability of survival.,Types of the selection,Intr
27、asexual selection:involves male to male(or female to female)competition for the opportunity to mate.Intersexual selection:is mostly female choice of a male.,三、生态学中的性别,研究物种种群内部性别关系的类型、动态及其影响因素是性别生态学(ecology of sex)的研究内容。交配体制:交配群体的社会结构决定了交配体制的运转。按配偶数来划分,有单配偶制(monogamy)和多配偶制(polygamy)。由于动物行为和环境条件上千差万别,
28、使多配偶制也有很多不同的亚类型。,Mating system for animals,Monogamy:a pair bond between one male and one female(it is most prevalent among birds and rare among mammals,except several carnivores,such as foxes,and a few herbivores,such as the beaver(海狸)and the prairie vole(野鼠).Polygamy:is the acquisition by an individual of two or more mates.It can involve one male and several females or one female and several males.(Polygyny一雄多雌);polyandry一雌多雄);(promiscuity多雌多雄)。,