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1、Lexicology,Lecture 10 Sense relations 语义关系,Sense relations 语义关系,Sense relations are the relations held between words within the vocabulary.synonymy 同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy下义关系homonymy同形同音异义关系定义，分类，比较5.polysemy一词多义,Synonymy,SynonymyTypes of synonymsSources of synonymsDiscrimination of synonyms,Synon
2、ymy,Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.-张维友picture,photo,snapshot,Synonymy,Synonymy is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items:lexical items which have the same meanin
3、g but differ in morphemic structure,phonological form and usage are synonyms,and the relationship between them is one of synonymy.,types of synonymy,total/absolute/perfect synonymspartial synonyms（部分同义词）,Synonyms,total/absolute/perfect synonyms:(完全同义词)are words which are identical in meaning in all
4、its aspects,i.e.both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include.highly specialized vocabulary e.g.,Scarlet-fever-scarlatina in medicinemalnutrition and undernourishmentWord building-word formationComposition-compounding,Synonymy,partial synonyms（部分同义词）/relative 相对 refer to items which are cl
5、ose enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole.(the importance of“context”)Lu(p335),Synonymy,partial synonyms（部分同义词）examples:able,capable,nearly,almost announce,declaremore examples:phrases and idiomsFin
6、allyat length Immediatelyat onceDepresslet downRequirecall for,Synonymy,more examples:phrases and idioms over head and ears in up to the neck in in a thousand and one ways by hook or by crook to die,to pass away,to kick the bucket,死(中性)，逝世(褒义)，蹬腿了(俚语),1.sources of synonymy,BorrowingWords of native o
7、rigin form many couplets and triplets with those from other languages,e.g.Native foreign room chamber foe enemy begin commence buy purchase bodily corporal heaven sky,1.sources of synonymy,BorrowingWords of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other languages,e.g.Native Fren
8、ch Latin ask question interrogate rise mount ascend fast firm secure fire flame conflagration fear terror trepidation time age epoch.,Features:native words:colloquial,intimate French words:formal Latin or Greek words:more formal,frozen,1.sources of synonymy,Dialects and regional EnglishAm E Brt E he
9、lp servant sidewalk pavement railroad railway elevator lift druggist chemist gasoline petrol installment plan hire-purchase system,佣人人行道铁路电梯药品商汽油分期付款,1.sources of synonymy,figurative and euphemistic use of wordse.g.Drunk-elevated(euph),lie-distort the fact(euph)coincidence with idomatic expressionse
10、.g.wingain the upper handhesitate-be in two mindshelplend one a hand,Discrimination of synonyms,Generally speaking,there is no difference between absolute synonyms whereas relative synonyms always differ in one way or another.difference in range and intensity of meaningdifference in stylistic featur
11、esdifference in emotive colouring difference in application,Discrimination of synonyms,difference in range and intensity of meaning I did not comprehend his exposition or his arguments,although I understood the language,and the grammatical import of each sentence.Understand is used in a much more ex
12、tended sense than comprehend.work vs.toil,Discrimination of synonyms,2.Difference in stylistic featuresPoliceman,constable,bobby,copPoliceman(Brt.&Am.E)and constable are neutral.Bobby is colloquial used only in British English.Cop is slangy.,Discrimination of synonyms,3.Difference in emotive colouri
13、ng Many words may be synonymous in conceptual meaning but differ in emotive values.e.g.result vs.consequenceLook at that lovely little boy.Look at that small boy.Look at that tiny boy.,Discrimination of synonyms,4.Difference in application EmptyVacant,SeatChair apartment,BoxStreetRoom,some interesti
14、ng expressions,汉语中有“差点儿”，“差不点儿”；“好容易”，“好不容易”；“好繁华”，“好不繁华”英语中有“valuable”and“invaluable”“flammable”and“inflammable”“shameful”and“shameless”“heritable”and“inheritable”“a good scare”and“a bad scare”“a fat chance”and“a slim chance”“quite a lot”and“quite a few”,Confusable words容易混淆的词,Predict v.语言 predicat
15、e v 论断Masterful a 专横的 masterly a 熟练的Alternate a 交替的 alternative aFateful fatal Informer n 告密者 informant 提供消息者Intense 强烈的 intensiveObservance n 遵守 observation 观察,Confusable words容易混淆的词,doubt,suspect“怀疑，疑心”I_he was suffering from peptic ulcer.The doctor_he was sufferingObject,oppose反对They all _to my p
16、roposal.The African people strongly_imperialist intervention in their internal affairs.,Antonymy反义关系,Types of antonyms Feature of antonymsThe Use of Antonyms,Antonymy 反义关系Antonymy deals with semantic opposition.反义关系研究的是语义上的对立。What are antonyms?Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in m
17、eaning.反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词。,Types of antonyms,Morphologically,antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）.P340词根反义词：clearvague,longshort,updown,whiteblack派生反义词:code-decode,appeardisappear,usefuluseless,prewarpostwar,Types of antonyms,Semantically,antonyms can be divid
18、ed into three types:ComplementaryContraryConverses,(1)Complementaries 互补反义词,Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.互补反义词是真正反映意义对立的反义词形式。binary antonyms 二元反义词 nongradableExamples in the textbook:Adj.:dead alive,present absent,male female,true false,Noun:bo
19、y girl,man womanV.pass-fail;hit-miss,Features of complementaries 互补反义词的特点,They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa.Another distinctive feature of this category is that such a
20、ntonyms are nongradable.-张维友,(2)Contraries 相对反义词,gradable antonymsContraries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.old,middle-aged,younghot,_,cold beautiful,_,ugly,Very big/big/quite/big/medium-sized/quite small/small/tiny,warm,cool,good-looking,plain,Such word
21、s also show the feature of gradability,that is,superlative degree or comparative degree,even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate the words are gradable.eg.Younger,youngest,very young,relatively young,(2)Contraries 相对反义词,Antonyms of this kind are characteristic of semantic polari
22、ty.These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带。,(2)Contraries 相对反义词,(3)Converses 关系反义词,Converses consist of relational opposites such as parentch
23、ild,husbandwife,predecessorsuccessor,employeremployee.The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.a.Nouns:husband-wife;student-teacher;doctor-patient;b.Verbs:buy-sell;teach-learn;give-take;rent-let;save-waste;win-lose
24、c.Prepositions:above-below;in front of-behind;,Note,天地heaven and earth夫妻man and wife 因果cause and effect来去come and go远近far and near黑白black and white厚薄thick and thin,Note,fire and water heat and coldeat and drinkright and leftrich and poorold and newheavy and lightsooner or later,水火寒暑饮食左右贫富新旧轻重迟早,The
25、Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(1)Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of a given word.反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。fresh bread,fresh air,fresh flowers,fresh lookstale bread,stuffy air,faded flowers,tired look,The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用,(
26、2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought,often for the sake of contrast.反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常常是为了形成对比。,here and there,friend or foe,first and last 总的来说rain or shine,无论如何 thick and thin 赴汤蹈火high and low到处，各地give and take 互相迁就，忍让,The Use of Ant
27、onyms 反义词的使用,(3)Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together.反义词常用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果Art is long,life is short.Easy come，easy go.More hate,less speed.United we stand,divided we fall.Hope for the best and prepare for the worst.,The Use of
28、 Antonyms 反义词的使用,(4)Many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purpose.许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。It was the best of times,it was the worst of times,it was the age of wisdom,it was the age of foolishness,it was the epoch of belief,it was the age of incredulity,it was the seas
29、on of light,it was the epoch of darkness,it was the spring of hope,it was the winter of despairs,we have everything in before us,we had nothing before us,we were all going direct to Heaven,we were all going direct to other ways-A Tale of Two Stories,Homonymy同形同音异义关系,Homonyms?Origin of homonymsTypes
30、of homonyms,Homonymy同形同音异义关系,Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。,Origins of homonyms,见课本Split of polysemy 多义词的词义分化 Quean/queen,flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos“
31、麦子的最精细部分”、flower Converging sound development 音变的汇合/外来词的介入 I/eye,bear/bear,race/race Shortening 词语缩略的结果Popular/pop,rock and roll/rockBernard Shaw:ghoti,Types of homonyms,Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词Homophones同音异义词Homographs同形异义词,the largest number and most common,(1)Perfect homonyms,Perfect ho
32、monyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spellingbank,bear,datebank n the edge of the river,lake,etcbank n.an establishment for money businessbear n a large heavy animalbear v to put up with date n a kind of fruit date n a boy or girl friend,(2)Homographs同形异义词,tea
33、r,sow.minute,lead,bow,wind重音转换：produce,refuse,desert,object,(3)Homophones同音异义词,sew/sow,dear/deer,meet/meat/mete边界，awe/oar/or/ore,cent/scent/sent,right/write/rite/wright，pair/pear/pare,to/two/too,tale/tail,Rhetoric features of homonyms,Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of
34、humor or irony for stylistic purposes.Example 1:-Youre not eating your fish,the waitress said to him.anything wrong with it?-long time no sea,the man replied.,Polysemy 一词多义关系,PolysemyTwo approaches to polysemy processes of development,Polysemy 一词多义关系,Polysemy means that one single word has two or mo
35、re senses at the same time.它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。The bulk of English words are polysemic;one meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such as hydrogen,molecule,and so on.,1.Two approaches to polysemy,Diachronic approach历时研究方法 It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of t
36、he semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义.Later meanings are called derivative meanings派生意义.P89,Synchronic approach共时研究方法 Synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical peri
37、od of time.从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义.The derivative meanings are secondary in comparison.,1.Two approaches to polysemy,2.processes of development,1)Radiation辐射型 2)Concatenation连锁型 3)the combination of the two,1)Radiation辐射型,Semant
38、ically,radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.从语义上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。,1)Radiation辐射型,Head P90（见课本）All the meanings are independent of one another,but
39、 can all be traced back to the central meaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义。,2)Concatenation连锁型,Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the
40、 primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。,例1：board：木板餐桌会议桌董事会例2：candidate：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人,3)radiation+concatenation,BE A C F G D,radiation+concatenation,综合性：词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（prolif
41、eration）,example,face:在古英语里的意思是“脸”。在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了“人的外表、外观、态度”等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了“表情”的意思；通过隐喻使词义转变为“尊严”。在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为“任何东西的外表、表面”。多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的。,radiation+concatenation,ones wholeattitude,face,an expressionon the face,reputation,ones wholeappearance,thesurfaceofanything,Hyponymy,Hypon
42、ymy,From the above diagram,we can see the word food is a general term,linguistically called a superordinate term,i.e.,it includes all the other terms listed underneath it.Meat,vegetable,and fruit are specific terms and they are all hyponyms/subordinate terms of food.The relationship between specific
43、 words and general words are called hyponymy.,human,baby,Hyponymy,container,The sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language.In reading comprehension,cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.e.g.There was a fine rocking-chair that his father used
44、 to sit in,a desk where he wrote letters,a nest of small tables and dark,imposing bookcase,now all this furniture was to be sold,and with it his own past,notes,Hand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系。又如 plant由 root，stem,leaf,flower,bud,shoot 组成。,Lexicology,Lecture 11semantic changechange
45、s of meaning,Changes in word meaning,Causes of change Mechanism/process of change Types of change,Types of semantic change,extension（词义的扩大）/generalization(词义的一般化)narrowing（词义的缩小）/specialization（词义的特殊化）/elevation(词义的升格)degeneration/degradation(词义的降格)transference of meaning(词义的转移),1.generalization/ext
46、ension,Extension of meaning is the name given to the widening of meaning,which some words undergo.It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and less definite concept.,Examples,lady:“the female host in a ho
47、use”“a female aristocrat”“women who are educated”“a polite way to refer to any kind of woman”“the synonym to woman”女主人贵族太太有教养的女主人任何女人saleslady,cleaning lady,ladies room,a lady novelist,lady traffic wardens,lady guests,1.generalization/extension,From specific to general 从特指到类指From concrete to abstrac
48、t从具体到抽象From technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通名词,Examples,From specific to general 从特指到类指,bird（幼鸟-鸟）journal（日报-一切期刊）From concrete to abstract从具体到抽象grasp用手抓住-掌握，领会pain罚款-惩罚-痛苦,Examples,From technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇,catalyst化学术语 催化剂 促进因素，导
49、火索allergic 对过敏 对有一种说不出的厌恶From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通名词Sandwich Boycott;Champagne;P72,汉语中的例子,又如：“得更求好女”（西门豹治邺）“好”，原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉语中“好”可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。,2.specialization/narrowing,narrowing is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense
50、.,2.specialization/narrowing,From general to specific 从类指到特指From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体From general words to technical terms 从一般词汇到术语From common nouns to proper nouns 从普通名词到专有名词,from general to specific从泛指到特指meat(各种食物,eg.sweetmeat甜食,greenmeat蔬菜,to be meat and drink to somebody flesh meat肉食)From
